[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":21391},["ShallowReactive",2],{"peptides-list":3},{"anti-aging":4,"cognitive-mental":3250,"experimental":6244,"muscle-growth-recovery":9306,"other":13421,"pain-management":13426,"performance-enhancement":13514,"performance-muscle":15509,"research-peptides":15514,"sexual-wellness":15519,"skin-beauty":17974,"wellness-recovery":20015},{"id":5,"slug":6,"title":7,"display_order":8,"peptides":9,"icon":3249},12,"anti-aging","Anti-Aging",0,[10,360,588,938,1216,1635,1838,2285,2536,2986],{"id":11,"name":12,"slug":13,"description":14,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":15,"views":16,"shortDescription":17,"researchStatus":18,"peptideBenefits":19,"benefits":79,"peptideSideEffects":96,"sideEffects":135,"dosage":146,"mechanism":147,"safetyNote":148,"athleteWarning":149,"chemicalMakeup":150,"citations":151,"research":292,"statsCache":293,"imageUrl":296,"molecularWeight":297,"molecularFormula":298,"pubchemId":299,"sequence":300,"halfLife":301,"administrationRoute":302,"casNumber":303,"smiles":304,"totalMentions":294,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"protocols":306,"aliases":324,"researchAreas":329,"evidence":334,"keyStudies":339,"limitations":347,"pharmacology":348,"faqs":349,"lastReviewed":359},8,"Epithalon","epithalon","Epithalon is a synthetic four-amino-acid peptide (Ala-Glu-Asp-Gly) developed by Russian scientists based on a natural extract from the pineal gland. It's one of the most studied \"anti-aging\" peptides, with over 25 years of research behind it. **The big claim: Telomerase activation** Telomeres are the protective caps on your chromosomes — like the plastic tips on shoelaces. Every time your cells divide, these caps get shorter. When they get too short, cells stop dividing and become \"senescent\" (old). Epithalon may activate telomerase, the enzyme that rebuilds these caps. **What the research shows:** • Activates telomerase in human cells (in laboratory studies) • Increases melatonin production from the pineal gland • Shows antioxidant and neuroprotective properties • Animal studies suggest improved lifespan and healthspan • May help normalize sleep patterns and circadian rhythms **Important context:** Most research comes from Russian laboratories, and large-scale human clinical trials meeting Western standards are lacking. While the science behind telomerase activation is compelling, more research is needed to confirm benefits in humans. **How it's used:** Typically injected subcutaneously in cycles, often before bed to align with natural melatonin production. --- **Sources:** Anisimov VN, et al. (2011) Cell Cycle | Khavinson V, et al. (2025) International Journal of Molecular Sciences. DOI:10.3390/ijms26062691",false,41,"Telomerase-activating peptide for longevity and cellular rejuvenation","Research compound - Telomerase activator",[20,29,32,35,38,41,47,51,54,57,61,64,67,70,73,76],{"id":21,"benefit":22,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},165,"Telomere lengthening",null,"research","1p9k4do","https://reddit.com/r/Peptides/comments/1p9k4do/peptides_have_changed_and_probably_saved_my_life/","anecdotal",true,{"id":30,"benefit":31,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},166,"Circadian rhythm regulation",{"id":33,"benefit":34,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},167,"Anti-aging effects",{"id":36,"benefit":37,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},168,"Enhanced 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daily for 10 days","Telomerase activator for cellular longevity","Research compound only. Limited human safety data available.","WADA BANNED - Prohibited in competitive sports as immune modulating peptide","Tetrapeptide Ala-Glu-Asp-Gly (AEDG)",[152,161,169,175,179,184,189,194,199,205,210,215,220,225,230,234,239,245,251,256,261,266,271,276,281,286],{"id":153,"title":154,"authors":155,"journal":156,"year":157,"citationType":158,"doi":159,"researchPaperId":160},50,"Epithalon: Telomerase Activation and Anti-Aging Properties","","International Journal of Molecular Sciences",2025,"Review","10.3390/ijms26062691","pubmed_36876291",{"id":162,"title":163,"authors":164,"journal":165,"year":166,"citationType":167,"doi":168},496,"Epithalon decelerates aging and suppresses development of breast adenocarcinomas in transgenic her-2/neu mice.","Anisimov VN, Khavinson VKh, Alimova IN, Semchenko AV, Yashin AI","Bulletin of experimental biology and medicine",2002,"manual","10.1023/a:1021104819170",{"id":170,"title":171,"authors":172,"journal":165,"year":173,"citationType":167,"doi":174},497,"Epithalon peptide induces telomerase activity and telomere elongation in human somatic cells.","Khavinson VKh, Bondarev IE, Butyugov AA",2003,"10.1023/a:1025493705728",{"id":42,"title":176,"authors":177,"journal":165,"year":166,"citationType":167,"doi":178},"Epithalon inhibits tumor growth and expression of HER-2/neu oncogene in breast tumors in transgenic mice characterized by accelerated aging.","Anisimov VN, Khavinsov VKh, Alimova IN, Provintsiali M, Manchini R, Francheski K","10.1023/a:1015555023692",{"id":180,"title":181,"authors":182,"journal":165,"year":166,"citationType":167,"doi":183},499,"Effect of Vilon and Epithalon on glucose and glycine absorption in various regions of small intestine in aged rats.","Khavinson VKh, Egorova VV, Timofeeva NM, Malinin VV, Gordova LA, Gromova LV","10.1023/a:1019878224754",{"id":185,"title":186,"authors":187,"journal":165,"year":166,"citationType":167,"doi":188},500,"Effect of epithalon on age-specific changes in the retina in rats with hereditary pigmentary dystrophy.","Khavinson VKh, Razumovskii MI, Trofimova SV, Grigor'yan RA, Chaban TV, Oleinik TL, Razumovskaya AM","10.1023/a:1015125031829",{"id":190,"title":191,"authors":192,"journal":165,"year":166,"citationType":167,"doi":193},501,"Studies of the effects of Vilon and Epithalon on gene expression in mouse heart using DNA-microarray technology.","Anisimov SV, Bokheler KR, Khavinson VKh, Anisimov VN","10.1023/a:1015859322630",{"id":195,"title":196,"authors":197,"journal":165,"year":166,"citationType":167,"doi":198},502,"Effect of vilon and epithalon on activity of enzymes in epithelial and subepithelial layers in small intestine of old rats.","Khavinson VKh, Timofeeva NM, Malinin VV, Gordova LA, Nikitina AA","10.1023/a:1022913228900",{"id":200,"title":201,"authors":202,"journal":165,"year":203,"citationType":167,"doi":204},503,"Modulating effects of epithalamin and epithalon on the functional morphology of the spleen in old pinealectomized rats.","Khavinson VK, Konovalov SS, Yuzhakov VV, Popuchiev VV, Kvetnoi IM",2001,"10.1023/a:1017989113287",{"id":206,"title":207,"authors":208,"journal":209,"year":166,"citationType":167},504,"Peptides and Ageing.","Khavinson VKh","Neuro endocrinology letters",{"id":211,"title":212,"authors":213,"journal":214,"year":166,"citationType":167},505,"[Aging of the pineal gland].","Khavinson VKh, Golubev AG","Advances in gerontology = Uspekhi gerontologii",{"id":216,"title":217,"authors":218,"journal":165,"year":166,"citationType":167,"doi":219},506,"Effect of epithalon on the incidence of chromosome aberrations in senescence-accelerated mice.","Rosenfeld SV, Togo EF, Mikheev VS, Popovich IG, Khavinson VKh, Anisimov VN","10.1023/a:1015899003974",{"id":221,"title":222,"authors":223,"journal":165,"year":203,"citationType":167,"doi":224},507,"Regulatory effect of Epithalon on production of melatonin and cortisol in old monkeys.","Goncharova ND, Khavinson BK, Lapin BA","10.1023/a:1017928925177",{"id":226,"title":227,"authors":228,"journal":214,"year":229,"citationType":167},508,"[The influence of melatonin and epithalon on blood leukocyte count and leukocyte alkaline phosphatase in rats under different lighting conditions during ontogenesis].","Uzenbaeva LB, Vinogradova IA, Golubeva AG, Niuppieva MG, Iliukha VA",2008,{"id":231,"title":232,"authors":233,"journal":214,"year":229,"citationType":167},509,"[Effects of epithalon and cortagene on immunity and hemostasis in neonatally hypophysectomized chicken and old birds].","Kuznik BI, Pateiuk AV, Baranchugova LM, Rusaeva NS",{"id":235,"title":236,"authors":237,"journal":165,"year":166,"citationType":167,"doi":238},510,"Effects of epithalon on activities gastrointestinal enzymes in young and old rats.","Khavinson VKh, Malinin VV, Timofeeva NM, Egorova VV, Nikitina AA","10.1023/a:1015807305791",{"id":240,"title":241,"authors":242,"journal":165,"year":243,"citationType":167,"doi":244},511,"Fluorescent microscopic study of epithalon binding in maternal and fetal rabbit tissues in health and under conditions of placental insufficiency.","Lapina EA, Nazarova LA, Petrova OP, Sibarov DA, Zubzhitskaya LB, Pavlova NG, Konstantinova NN, Konovalov YS, Kvetnoi IM, Arutyunyan AV, Grigorev EI",2005,"10.1007/s10517-005-0359-2",{"id":246,"title":247,"authors":248,"journal":165,"year":249,"citationType":167,"doi":250},512,"Expression of argyrophilic proteins in the nucleolar organizer regions of human thymocytes and thymic epitheliocytes under conditions of coculturing with vilon and epithalon peptides.","Raikhlin NT, Bukaeva IA, Smirnova EA, Yarilin AA, Sharova NI, Mitneva MM, Khavinson VKh, Polyakova VO, Trofimov AV, Kvetnoi IM",2004,"10.1023/b:bebm.0000042720.40439.16",{"id":252,"title":253,"authors":254,"journal":165,"year":203,"citationType":167,"doi":255},513,"Immunohistochemical and morphometric analysis of effects of vilon and epithalon on functional morphology of radiosensitive organs.","Khavinson VK, Yuzhakov VV, Kvetnoi IM, Malinin VV, Popuchiev VV, Fomina NK","10.1023/a:1017676104877",{"id":257,"title":258,"authors":259,"journal":214,"year":260,"citationType":167},514,"[Protective effect of melatonin and epithalon on hypothalamic regulation of reproduction in female rats in its premature aging model and on estrous cycles in senescent animals in various lighting regimes].","Korenevsky AV, Milyutina YP, Bukalyov AV, Baranova YP, Vinogradova IA, Arutjunyan AV",2013,{"id":262,"title":263,"authors":264,"journal":165,"year":203,"citationType":167,"doi":265},515,"Reparative effect of epithalon on pineal gland ultrastructure in gamma-irradiated rats.","Khavinson VK, Yakovleva ND, Popuchiev VV, Kvetnoi IM, Manokhina RP","10.1023/a:1017599100641",{"id":267,"title":268,"authors":269,"journal":165,"year":203,"citationType":167,"doi":270},516,"Tissue-specific effects of peptides.","Khavinson VK","10.1023/a:1013058701974",{"id":272,"title":273,"authors":274,"journal":165,"year":249,"citationType":167,"doi":275},517,"Effects of short peptides on lymphocyte chromatin in senile subjects.","Khavinson VKh, Lezhava TA, Malinin VV","10.1023/b:bebm.0000024393.40560.05",{"id":277,"title":278,"authors":279,"journal":165,"year":249,"citationType":167,"doi":280},518,"Effect of melatonin and tetrapeptide on gene expression in mouse brain.","Anisimov SV, Khavinson VKh, Anisimov VN","10.1007/s10517-005-0082-z",{"id":282,"title":283,"authors":284,"journal":165,"year":173,"citationType":167,"doi":285},519,"Retinoprotective effect of Epithalon in campbell rats of various ages.","Khavinson VKh, Razumovsky MI, Trofimova SV, Razumovskaya AM","10.1023/a:1024931812822",{"id":287,"title":288,"authors":289,"journal":165,"year":290,"citationType":167,"doi":291},520,"Effect of Ala-Glu-Asp-Gly peptide on life span and development of spontaneous tumors in female rats exposed to different illumination regimes.","Vinogradova IA, Bukalev AV, Zabezhinski MA, Semenchenko AV, Khavinson VKh, Anisimov VN",2007,"10.1007/s10517-007-0441-z",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":294,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":295},7,"2026-01-05T22:12:16.143490","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/epithalon.webp","390.35","C14H22N4O9","219042","AEDG","30 minutes","SC/IM","307297-39-8","C[C@@H](C(=O)N[C@@H](CCC(=O)O)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(=O)O)C(=O)NCC(=O)O)N",100,[307,312,315,318,321],{"name":308,"dose":309,"frequency":310,"route":311},"Evidence-Based Protocol (Recommended)","200-500μg","Daily","Subcutaneous",{"name":313,"dose":314,"frequency":310,"route":311},"Conservative Start","100μg",{"name":316,"dose":317,"frequency":310,"route":311},"Russian Clinical Equivalent","300μg",{"name":319,"dose":320,"frequency":310,"route":311},"Traditional Western (Anecdotal)","5-10mg",{"name":322,"dose":323,"frequency":310,"route":311},"Ultra-Low Dose","50μg",[12,325,326,327,328],"Epitalon","AEDG tetrapeptide","Ala-Glu-Asp-Gly","epithalamin-derived tetrapeptide",[330,331,332,333],"Telomere/telomerase research","Longevity and aging","Pineal gland and melatonin regulation","Age-related disease prevention",{"human":335,"animal":336,"inVitro":337,"uncertain":338},"Clinical data are limited and come mainly from small Russian studies associated with the Khavinson group, reporting normalization of melatonin rhythm, improved sleep, immune parameters, and well-being in older adults; independent replication is largely lacking.","Animal studies (mice, rats, Drosophila) from the Khavinson laboratory report lifespan extension, normalization of pineal function, and reduced age-related pathology with the AEDG peptide (epithalon).","Cell-culture studies from the same group report that epithalon can activate telomerase and lengthen telomeres in cultured human somatic cells; these findings have not been independently reproduced.","The flagship claims - telomerase activation, telomere elongation, and human lifespan extension - rest almost entirely on a single research group's reports in Russian-language journals; no independent clinical confirmation exists.",[340,344],{"finding":341,"source":342,"year":23,"link":23,"evidenceLevel":343},"Cell-culture studies by the Khavinson laboratory reported that the AEDG peptide (epitalon) activates telomerase and elongates telomeres in cultured human somatic cells.","Cell-culture studies (Khavinson laboratory)","in-vitro",{"finding":345,"source":346,"year":23,"link":23,"evidenceLevel":50},"Animal lifespan studies report that epithalon extends lifespan and normalizes age-related changes in pineal and immune function in mice and Drosophila.","Animal lifespan studies (Khavinson laboratory)","Essentially all human and mechanistic data come from the Khavinson group in Russia, with few independent replications. No large, multicenter human trials exist, and claims of telomere elongation in vivo and lifespan extension in humans remain unproven. There is no regulatory approval outside Russia.","Epithalon is a synthetic tetrapeptide (Ala-Glu-Asp-Gly) modeled on a pineal peptide (epithalamin). In Russian practice it is given by subcutaneous or intramuscular injection in short courses. Pharmacokinetic data (half-life, bioavailability) are not well characterized in accessible peer-reviewed literature.",[350,353,356],{"question":351,"answer":352},"Does epithalon really lengthen telomeres in humans?","Telomerase activation and telomere elongation were reported only in cell-culture studies from one Russian laboratory; there is no independent clinical evidence of telomere elongation in people.",{"question":354,"answer":355},"Is epithalon approved anywhere?","It is not FDA approved; it has been used in Russia within the Khavinson bioregulator research and clinical practice.",{"question":357,"answer":358},"Are the longevity claims evidence-based?","Animal lifespan studies by the originating lab exist, but independent replication and large human trials are lacking, so human longevity claims remain unproven.","2026-08-18",{"id":361,"name":362,"slug":363,"description":364,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":15,"views":365,"shortDescription":366,"researchStatus":367,"peptideBenefits":368,"benefits":387,"peptideSideEffects":395,"sideEffects":415,"dosage":421,"mechanism":422,"safetyNote":423,"chemicalMakeup":424,"citations":425,"research":530,"statsCache":531,"imageUrl":534,"molecularWeight":535,"molecularFormula":536,"pubchemId":537,"sequence":538,"halfLife":539,"administrationRoute":540,"smiles":541,"totalMentions":532,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"protocols":542,"aliases":556,"researchAreas":559,"evidence":563,"keyStudies":567,"limitations":579,"pharmacology":580,"faqs":581,"lastReviewed":359},59,"FOXO4-DRI","foxo4-dri","FOXO4-DRI is a synthetic D-retro-inverso peptide designed to selectively induce apoptosis in senescent cells, a class of dysfunctional cells that accumulate with age and contribute to tissue dysfunction through the senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP). The peptide works by disrupting the interaction between FOXO4 and p53 proteins. In senescent cells, FOXO4 sequesters p53 in the nucleus, preventing p53-mediated apoptosis; FOXO4-DRI competes for this binding, releasing p53 to trigger cell death selectively in senescent cells while sparing normal cells. Research in aged mice demonstrated improved fitness, fur density, and renal function following FOXO4-DRI treatment. The D-retro-inverso modification enhances peptide stability and resistance to proteolysis. FOXO4-DRI represents a \"senolytic\" approach to addressing cellular aging, potentially improving healthspan by clearing accumulated senescent cells. While preclinical results are promising, human clinical trials have not yet been conducted to establish safety and efficacy in humans.",13,"Senolytic peptide for removing senescent cells and anti-aging","Research compound - Senolytic peptide",[369,372,374,377,380,382,384],{"id":190,"benefit":370,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":371,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},"Senolytic: Selectively eliminates senescent cells","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28340347/",{"id":373,"benefit":34,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},336,{"id":375,"benefit":376,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},337,"Senescent cell removal",{"id":378,"benefit":379,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},338,"Cancer fighting potential",{"id":381,"benefit":66,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},339,{"id":383,"benefit":63,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},340,{"id":385,"benefit":386,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},341,"Tissue regeneration",[388,389,390,391,392,393,394],{"id":190,"benefit":370,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":371,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":373,"benefit":34,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":375,"benefit":376,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":378,"benefit":379,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":381,"benefit":66,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":383,"benefit":63,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":385,"benefit":386,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},[396,403,406,409,412],{"id":397,"sideEffect":398,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":399,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":400,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":362,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":401,"management":402,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},563,"Mild side effect","Reported (anecdotal only)","fightaging.org","Immediately","Rotate sites",{"id":404,"sideEffect":405,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},205,"Fatigue",{"id":407,"sideEffect":408,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},207,"No severe human data",{"id":410,"sideEffect":411,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},206,"Mild nausea",{"id":413,"sideEffect":414,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},208,"Rare unknown long-term effects",[416,417,418,419,420],{"id":397,"sideEffect":398,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":399,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":400,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":362,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":401,"management":402,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":404,"sideEffect":405,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":407,"sideEffect":408,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":410,"sideEffect":411,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":413,"sideEffect":414,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Research protocols: Highly variable, typically administered in specialized research settings (Research use only)","Disrupts senescent cell survival pathways, promoting their elimination","Highly experimental research compound. Extremely limited safety data. Use only in controlled research settings.","D-retro-inverso peptide fragment of FOXO4 protein, designed to disrupt p53 interaction",[426,433,440,446,453,460,467,473,480,486,493,500,506,512,518,524],{"id":427,"title":428,"authors":155,"journal":429,"year":157,"citationType":430,"doi":431,"researchPaperId":432},51,"FOXO4-DRI: Senolytic Peptide for Aging Intervention","Nature Communications","Preclinical","10.1038/s41467-025-60844-9","pubmed_40593617",{"id":434,"title":435,"authors":155,"journal":436,"year":437,"citationType":430,"doi":438,"researchPaperId":439},52,"FOXO4-DRI Targeting Senescent Cells in Cardiovascular Disease","Circulation",2022,"10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.122.058794","pubmed_36515093",{"id":441,"title":442,"authors":443,"journal":444,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":445},546,"FOXO4-DRI induces keloid senescent fibroblast apoptosis by promoting nuclear exclusion of upregulated p53-serine 15 phosphorylation.","Kong YX, Li ZS, Liu YB, Pan B, Fu X, Xiao R, Yan L","Communications biology","10.1038/s42003-025-07738-0",{"id":447,"title":448,"authors":449,"journal":450,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":452},547,"FOXO4-DRI alleviates age-related testosterone secretion insufficiency by targeting senescent Leydig cells in aged mice.","Zhang C, Xie Y, Chen H, Lv L, Yao J, Zhang M, Xia K, Feng X, Li Y, Liang X, Sun X, Deng C, Liu G","Aging",2020,"10.18632/aging.102682",{"id":454,"title":455,"authors":456,"journal":457,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":459},548,"FOXO4-DRI improves spermatogenesis in aged mice through reducing senescence-associated secretory phenotype secretion from Leydig cells.","Li Y, Zhang C, Cheng H, Lv L, Zhu X, Ma M, Xu Z, He J, Xie Y, Yang X, Liang X, Deng C, Liu G","Experimental gerontology",2024,"10.1016/j.exger.2024.112522",{"id":461,"title":462,"authors":463,"journal":464,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":466},549,"Senolytic Peptide FOXO4-DRI Selectively Removes Senescent Cells From in vitro Expanded Human Chondrocytes.","Huang Y, He Y, Makarcyzk MJ, Lin H","Frontiers in bioengineering and biotechnology",2021,"10.3389/fbioe.2021.677576",{"id":468,"title":469,"authors":470,"journal":471,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":472},550,"Targeting senescence-like fibroblasts radiosensitizes non-small cell lung cancer and reduces radiation-induced pulmonary fibrosis.","Meng J, Li Y, Wan C, Sun Y, Dai X, Huang J, Hu Y, Gao Y, Wu B, Zhang Z, Jiang K, Xu S, Lovell JF, Hu Y, Wu G, Jin H, Yang K","JCI insight","10.1172/jci.insight.146334",{"id":474,"title":475,"authors":476,"journal":477,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":479},551,"FOXO4-D-Retro-Inverso targets extracellular matrix production in fibroblasts and ameliorates bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis in mice.","Liu Y, Hou Q, Wang R, Liu Y, Cheng Z","Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's archives of pharmacology",2023,"10.1007/s00210-023-02452-2",{"id":481,"title":482,"authors":483,"journal":484,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":485},552,"FOXO4 peptide targets myofibroblast ameliorates bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis in mice through ECM-receptor interaction pathway.","Han X, Yuan T, Zhang J, Shi Y, Li D, Dong Y, Fan S","Journal of cellular and molecular medicine","10.1111/jcmm.17333",{"id":487,"title":488,"authors":489,"journal":490,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":492},553,"Cellular senescence in the aging and diseased kidney.","Valentijn FA, Falke LL, Nguyen TQ, Goldschmeding R","Journal of cell communication and signaling",2018,"10.1007/s12079-017-0434-2",{"id":494,"title":495,"authors":496,"journal":497,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":499},554,"Rejuvenation by Therapeutic Elimination of Senescent Cells.","Krimpenfort P, Berns A","Cell",2017,"10.1016/j.cell.2017.03.014",{"id":501,"title":502,"authors":503,"journal":504,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":505},555,"Cellular senescence as a therapeutic target to improve renal transplantation outcome.","van Willigenburg H, de Keizer PLJ, de Bruin RWF","Pharmacological research","10.1016/j.phrs.2018.02.015",{"id":507,"title":508,"authors":509,"journal":510,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":511},556,"[Molecular regulative mechanisms of aging and interventional effects of Chinese herbal medicine].","Liu BH, Gu YH, Tu Y, He WM, Wu W, Liu YL, Wan ZY, Wan YG","Zhongguo Zhong yao za zhi = Zhongguo zhongyao zazhi = China journal of Chinese materia medica","10.19540/j.cnki.cjcmm.20170731.001",{"id":513,"title":514,"authors":515,"journal":516,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":517},557,"Targeting Multiple Homeostasis-Maintaining Systems by Ionophore Nigericin Is a Novel Approach for Senolysis.","Deryabin PI, Shatrova AN, Borodkina AV","International journal of molecular sciences","10.3390/ijms232214251",{"id":519,"title":520,"authors":521,"journal":522,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":523},558,"Cellular Senescence Contributes to the Progression of Hyperoxic Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia.","Jing X, Jia S, Teng M, Day BW, Afolayan AJ, Jarzembowski JA, Lin CW, Hessner MJ, Pritchard KA Jr, Naylor S, Konduri GG, Teng RJ","American journal of respiratory cell and molecular biology","10.1165/rcmb.2023-0038OC",{"id":525,"title":526,"authors":527,"journal":528,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":529},559,"Bioinformatics procedure for investigating senolytic (anti-aging) agents: A digital signal processing technique.","Nwankwo N, Okafor I","Aging medicine (Milton (N.S.W))","10.1002/agm2.12274",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":532,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":533},1,"2026-01-05T22:12:00.884127","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/foxo4-dri.avif","1.5","C228H388N86O64","167312269","P","Hours to days (D-amino acids confer stability)","SC","CC[C@@H](C)[C@H](C(=O)N[C@H](C)C(=O)N[C@H](CCC(=O)N)C(=O)N[C@H](CO)C(=O)N[C@H]([C@H](C)CC)C(=O)N[C@H](CC(C)C)C(=O)N[C@H](CCC(=O)O)C(=O)N[C@H](C)C(=O)N[C@H](CC1=CC=C(C=C1)O)C(=O)N[C@H](CO)C(=O)N[C@H](CCC(=O)N)C(=O)N[C@H](CC(=O)N)C(=O)NCC(=O)N[C@H](CC2=CNC3=CC=CC=C32)C(=O)N[C@H](C)C(=O)N[C@H](CC(=O)N)C(=O)N[C@H](CCCNC(=N)N)C(=O)N[C@H](CCCNC(=N)N)C(=O)N[C@H](CO)C(=O)NCC(=O)NCC(=O)N[C@H](CCCCN)C(=O)N[C@H](CCCNC(=N)N)C(=O)N4CCC[C@@H]4C(=O)N5CCC[C@@H]5C(=O)N6CCC[C@@H]6C(=O)N[C@H](CCCNC(=N)N)C(=O)N[C@H](CCCNC(=N)N)C(=O)N[C@H](CCCNC(=N)N)C(=O)N[C@H](CCC(=O)N)C(=O)N[C@H](CCCNC(=N)N)C(=O)N[C@H](CCCNC(=N)N)C(=O)N[C@H](CCCCN)C(=O)N[C@H](CCCCN)C(=O)N[C@H](CCCNC(=N)N)C(=O)NCC(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@@H](CCC(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@@H](CO)NC(=O)[C@@H](C)NC(=O)[C@H]7CCCN7C(=O)[C@@H](CCC(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@@H](CCCCN)NC(=O)[C@@H](CCCNC(=N)N)NC(=O)[C@@H](CC(C)C)NC(=O)[C@@H]([C@H](C)O)NC(=O)[C@@H](CC(C)C)N",[543,548,551],{"name":544,"dose":545,"frequency":546,"route":547},"Mouse Research Protocol (IV)","5 mg/kg","Every other day × 3 doses","IV",{"name":549,"dose":545,"frequency":546,"route":550},"Mouse Research Protocol (IP)","IP",{"name":552,"dose":553,"frequency":554,"route":555},"Anecdotal Human Translation (SubQ)","~25 mg per injection","Every other day × 3 doses (75-100 mg total per cycle)","SubQ",[362,557,558],"D-retro-inverso FOXO4 peptide","Senolytic peptide FOXO4-DRI",[560,561,562],"Senolytics / cellular senescence","Anti-aging and healthspan research","Renal and tissue regeneration",{"human":23,"animal":564,"inVitro":565,"uncertain":566},"In aged and chemotherapy-treated mice, Baar et al. (2017, Nat Med, PMID 28340347) showed FOXO4-DRI selectively cleared senescent cells and restored physical fitness, fur density, and renal function.","Cell studies demonstrate FOXO4-DRI disrupts the FOXO4-p53 interaction, releasing p53 to induce apoptosis selectively in senescent cells - e.g., senescent human chondrocytes (Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2021, PMID 33996787) and keloid senescent fibroblasts (Commun Biol 2025).","No human clinical data exist; efficacy, dosing, and safety in humans are entirely unknown; the reproducibility of the flagship Nature Medicine findings has been debated, and senolytic approaches remain experimental.",[568,571,575],{"finding":569,"source":570,"year":498,"link":371,"evidenceLevel":50},"FOXO4-DRI cleared senescent cells in aged and chemotoxicity-exposed mice, restoring fur density, physical fitness and kidney function without toxicity to non-senescent cells.","Preclinical study (Nat Med)",{"finding":572,"source":573,"year":465,"link":574,"evidenceLevel":343},"FOXO4-DRI selectively removed senescent cells from in-vitro expanded human chondrocytes, supporting utility in osteoarthritis-related senescence research.","In-vitro study (Front Bioeng Biotechnol)","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33996787/",{"finding":576,"source":577,"year":157,"link":578,"evidenceLevel":343},"FOXO4-DRI induced apoptosis in keloid senescent fibroblasts by promoting nuclear exclusion of p53 (serine-15 phosphorylation), suggesting anti-fibrotic research potential.","In-vitro/cell study (Communications Biology)","https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-025-07738-0","Entirely preclinical (mouse and cell data); no human trials registered; long-term effects, pharmacokinetics, and clinical tolerability unknown; some foundational findings have faced reproducibility questions.","Synthetic D-retro-inverso peptide designed for proteolytic stability; competes with FOXO4 for binding to p53 in senescent cells, allowing p53 nuclear translocation and apoptosis of senescent cells. No human pharmacokinetic data.",[582,585],{"question":583,"answer":584},"Has FOXO4-DRI been tested in humans?","No. Published evidence is limited to cell and mouse studies; there are no completed or registered human clinical trials for FOXO4-DRI.",{"question":586,"answer":587},"What does 'DRI' mean in the name?","It denotes the D-retro-inverso configuration - the peptide is synthesized with D-amino acids in reversed order - which resists enzymatic degradation and improves stability.",{"id":589,"name":590,"slug":591,"description":592,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":15,"views":593,"shortDescription":594,"researchStatus":595,"peptideBenefits":596,"benefits":647,"peptideSideEffects":666,"sideEffects":683,"dosage":688,"mechanism":689,"safetyNote":690,"citations":691,"research":851,"statsCache":852,"dataSources":854,"imageUrl":864,"molecularWeight":865,"molecularFormula":866,"pubchemId":867,"sequence":868,"halfLife":869,"casNumber":870,"smiles":871,"totalMentions":365,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"protocols":872,"aliases":896,"researchAreas":901,"evidence":907,"keyStudies":912,"limitations":926,"pharmacology":927,"faqs":928,"lastReviewed":359},46,"Glutathione","glutathione","Glutathione (GSH) is a tripeptide consisting of glutamate, cysteine, and glycine that serves as the body's master antioxidant and primary defense against oxidative stress. Present in virtually all cells, glutathione protects against reactive oxygen species, supports detoxification of xenobiotics and metabolic byproducts, maintains other antioxidants (vitamins C and E) in their active forms, and plays essential roles in immune function and DNA synthesis. Research demonstrates glutathione levels decline with age and in numerous disease states including neurodegenerative conditions, liver disease, HIV/AIDS, and cancer. The reduced form (GSH) neutralizes free radicals and is regenerated by glutathione reductase using NADPH. Supplementation strategies include oral glutathione (with variable bioavailability), liposomal glutathione, intravenous glutathione, and precursor support (N-acetyl cysteine, glycine, glutamine). Research indicates benefits for liver protection, skin lightening, immune support, and athletic recovery. Optimal glutathione status is considered fundamental to cellular health and longevity.",307,"Master antioxidant for detoxification and cellular protection","Supplement - Master antioxidant",[597,601,604,607,610,612,614,616,618,622,625,628,631,634,637,640,642,644],{"id":598,"benefit":599,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},648,"Master antioxidant","notion_database",{"id":602,"benefit":603,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},649,"Detoxifies liver",{"id":605,"benefit":606,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},650,"Improves skin health",{"id":608,"benefit":609,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},651,"Reduces oxidative stress.",{"id":611,"benefit":599,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},772,{"id":613,"benefit":603,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},773,{"id":615,"benefit":606,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},774,{"id":617,"benefit":609,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},775,{"id":619,"benefit":620,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":621,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},525,"There may be some absorption of glutathione intact from the intestines, but it cannot enter cells intact. It must be metabolized to form L-cystine (two molecules of L-cysteine bound together) before being taken up.","https://examine.com/supplements/glutathione/?show_conditions=true",{"id":623,"benefit":624,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":621,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},526,"Provision of L-cysteine within the cell is all that is needed to increase glutathione synthesis, and N-Acetylcysteine does this efficiently at a lower financial cost than glutathione.",{"id":626,"benefit":627,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":621,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},527,"In effect, glutathione is an indirect and expensive way to provide dietary L-cysteine. Dietary protein itself, including L-cysteine rich sources such as Whey Protein, are effective but inefficient ways to increase L-cysteine intake in the diet and N-Acetylcysteine is both more efficient and cheaper than glutathione.",{"id":629,"benefit":630,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":621,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},528,"Although oral glutathione supplementation does not efficiently increase intracellular glutathione levels for the above reasons, it can be absorbed intact into the blood stream. Since increased glutathione levels in the blood have been shown to slow the breakdown of nitric oxide, glutathione supplementation may be useful to augment nitric oxide boosters such as L-Citrulline or L-Arginine.",{"id":632,"benefit":633,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},348,"Antioxidant support",{"id":635,"benefit":636,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},349,"Immune health",{"id":638,"benefit":639,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},350,"Detoxification",{"id":641,"benefit":40,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},351,{"id":643,"benefit":34,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},352,{"id":645,"benefit":646,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},353,"Liver 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intervention",{"id":673,"sideEffect":674,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":675,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},242,"GI discomfort (oral)","within hours",{"id":677,"sideEffect":678,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":675,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},243,"Bloating",{"id":680,"sideEffect":681,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":682,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},244,"Skin whitening (high doses)","weeks",[684,685,686,687],{"id":668,"sideEffect":120,"description":23,"severity":23,"frequency":669,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":670,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":590,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":671,"doseDependent":15,"needsReview":15},{"id":673,"sideEffect":674,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":675,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":677,"sideEffect":678,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":675,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":680,"sideEffect":681,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":682,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Supplement protocols: 250-1000mg daily (consult healthcare provider)","Master antioxidant that neutralizes free radicals and supports detoxification","Generally considered safe as a supplement. Consult healthcare provider for appropriate dosing.",[692,699,705,712,718,724,731,738,745,751,757,763,769,776,782,788,794,800,806,812,818,825,831,838,844],{"id":693,"title":694,"authors":695,"journal":696,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":698},698,"Glutathione: subcellular distribution and membrane transport (1).","Oestreicher J, Morgan B","Biochemistry and cell biology = Biochimie et biologie cellulaire",2019,"10.1139/bcb-2018-0189",{"id":700,"title":701,"authors":702,"journal":703,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":704},699,"Detection of Protein-Protein Interactions Using Glutathione-S-Transferase (GST) Pull-Down Assay Technique.","Gnanasekaran P, Pappu HR","Methods in molecular biology (Clifton, N.J.)","10.1007/978-1-0716-3327-4_10",{"id":706,"title":707,"authors":708,"journal":709,"year":710,"citationType":167,"doi":711},700,"Glutathione conjugation and conversion to mercapturic acids can occur as an intrahepatic process.","Hinchman CA, Ballatori N","Journal of toxicology and environmental health",1994,"10.1080/15287399409531852",{"id":713,"title":714,"authors":715,"journal":716,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":717},701,"Implications of glutathione-S transferase P1 in MAPK signaling as a CRAF chaperone: In memory of Dr. Irving Listowsky.","Niitsu Y, Sato Y, Takayama T","Proceedings of the Japan Academy. Series B, Physical and biological sciences","10.2183/pjab.98.005",{"id":719,"title":720,"authors":721,"journal":722,"year":723,"citationType":167},702,"Hepatic glutathione and glutathione S-conjugate transport mechanisms.","Lee TK, Li L, Ballatori N","The Yale journal of biology and medicine",1997,{"id":725,"title":726,"authors":727,"journal":728,"year":729,"citationType":167,"doi":730},703,"Mammalian glutathione S-transferase: regulation of an enzyme system to achieve chemotherapeutic efficacy.","Gulick AM, Fahl WE","Pharmacology & therapeutics",1995,"10.1016/0163-7258(94)00079-i",{"id":732,"title":733,"authors":734,"journal":735,"year":736,"citationType":167,"doi":737},704,"Export pumps for glutathione S-conjugates.","Keppler D","Free radical biology & medicine",1999,"10.1016/s0891-5849(99)00171-9",{"id":739,"title":740,"authors":741,"journal":742,"year":743,"citationType":167,"doi":744},705,"Glutathione S-aralkyltransferase.","Boyland E, Chasseaud LF","The Biochemical journal",1969,"10.1042/bj1150985",{"id":746,"title":747,"authors":748,"journal":749,"year":750,"citationType":167},706,"[Metabolism and antioxidant function of glutathione].","Gérard-Monnier D, Chaudiere J","Pathologie-biologie",1996,{"id":752,"title":753,"authors":754,"journal":755,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":756},707,"Simultaneous quantification of glutathione, glutathione disulfide and glutathione-S-sulfonate in grape and wine using LC-MS/MS.","Dienes-Nagy Á, Vuichard F, Belcher S, Blackford M, Rösti J, Lorenzini F","Food chemistry","10.1016/j.foodchem.2022.132756",{"id":758,"title":759,"authors":760,"journal":761,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":762},708,"Association of glutathione-S-transferase polymorphism with genetic damage in paint workers.","KanuPriya, Kumar S, Gupta R, Aggarwal N, Yadav A","Molecular biology reports","10.1007/s11033-023-08335-2",{"id":764,"title":765,"authors":766,"journal":767,"year":203,"citationType":167,"doi":768},709,"Chemical-induced nephrotoxicity mediated by glutathione S-conjugate formation.","Dekant W","Toxicology letters","10.1016/s0378-4274(00)00285-x",{"id":770,"title":771,"authors":772,"journal":773,"year":774,"citationType":167,"doi":775},710,"Glutathione conjugates of misonidazole.","Varghese AJ","Biochemical and biophysical research communications",1983,"10.1016/0006-291x(83)91719-9",{"id":777,"title":778,"authors":779,"journal":780,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":781},711,"Inhibition of glutathione S-transferases by photoactive calix[4]arene α-ketophosphonic acids.","Kobzar O, Shulha Y, Buldenko V, Cherenok S, Silenko O, Kalchenko V, Vovk A","Bioorganic & medicinal chemistry letters","10.1016/j.bmcl.2022.129019",{"id":783,"title":784,"authors":785,"journal":786,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":787},712,"Glutathione Pulse Therapy: Promote Spatiotemporal Delivery of Reduction-Sensitive Nanoparticles at the \"Cellular Level\" and Synergize PD-1 Blockade Therapy.","Dong S, Zhang Y, Guo X, Zhang C, Wang Z, Yu J, Liu Y, Li C, Hu Y, Sun B, Sun M, Zhang H, Ouyang D, He Z, Wang Y","Advanced science (Weinheim, Baden-Wurttemberg, Germany)","10.1002/advs.202202744",{"id":789,"title":790,"authors":791,"journal":792,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":793},713,"Characterization of the Glutathione S-Transferases Involved in Styrene Degradation in Gordonia rubripertincta CWB2.","Lienkamp AC, Burnik J, Heine T, Hofmann E, Tischler D","Microbiology spectrum","10.1128/Spectrum.00474-21",{"id":795,"title":796,"authors":797,"journal":798,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":799},714,"[Plasmatic glutathione levels and their relationships with clinical and therapeutic features in patients with schizophrenia].","Raffa M, Bel Hadj Youssef I, Ben Othman L, Fendri C, Mechri A","L'Encephale","10.1016/j.encep.2020.01.010",{"id":801,"title":802,"authors":803,"journal":804,"year":710,"citationType":167,"doi":805},715,"X-ray crystal structures of cytosolic glutathione S-transferases. Implications for protein architecture, substrate recognition and catalytic function.","Dirr H, Reinemer P, Huber R","European journal of biochemistry","10.1111/j.1432-1033.1994.tb18666.x",{"id":807,"title":808,"authors":809,"journal":804,"year":810,"citationType":167,"doi":811},716,"Glutathione S-conjugate transport using inside-out vesicles from human erythrocytes.","Kondo T, Murao M, Taniguchi N",1982,"10.1111/j.1432-1033.1982.tb06717.x",{"id":813,"title":814,"authors":815,"journal":816,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":817},717,"Mitochondrial Glutathione Depletion Nanoshuttles for Oxygen-Irrelevant Free Radicals Generation: A Cascaded Hierarchical Targeting and Theranostic Strategy Against Hypoxic Tumor.","Liang B, Qiao B, Yu K, Cao J, Zhou H, Jiang Q, Zhong Y, Cao Y, Wang Z, Zheng Y","ACS applied materials & interfaces","10.1021/acsami.1c24708",{"id":819,"title":820,"authors":821,"journal":822,"year":823,"citationType":167,"doi":824},718,"Levels of glutathione, glutathione reductase and glutathione S-transferase activities in rat lung and liver.","Moron MS, Depierre JW, Mannervik B","Biochimica et biophysica acta",1979,"10.1016/0304-4165(79)90289-7",{"id":826,"title":827,"authors":828,"journal":829,"year":249,"citationType":167,"doi":830},719,"Glutathione-S-transferase P1-1 protects aberrant crypt foci from apoptosis induced by deoxycholic acid.","Nobuoka A, Takayama T, Miyanishi K, Sato T, Takanashi K, Hayashi T, Kukitsu T, Sato Y, Takahashi M, Okamoto T, Matsunaga T, Kato J, Oda M, Azuma T, Niitsu Y","Gastroenterology","10.1053/j.gastro.2004.05.021",{"id":832,"title":833,"authors":834,"journal":835,"year":836,"citationType":167,"doi":837},720,"Glutathione S-transferase in mucus of rat small intestine.","Samiec PS, Dahm LJ, Jones DP","Toxicological sciences : an official journal of the Society of Toxicology",2000,"10.1093/toxsci/54.1.52",{"id":839,"title":840,"authors":841,"journal":842,"year":843,"citationType":167},721,"[Glutathione reductase and glutathione-insulin-transhydrogenase and their participation in the oxydation-reduction transformation of glutathione].","Weinbergová O","Ceskoslovenska fysiologie",1970,{"id":845,"title":846,"authors":847,"journal":848,"year":849,"citationType":167,"doi":850},722,"Bioactivation of hexachlorobutadiene by glutathione conjugation.","Dekant W, Vamvakas S, Anders MW","Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association",1990,"10.1016/0278-6915(90)90041-k",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":365,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":853},"2026-01-05T22:12:03.425254",[855,859],{"doi":23,"url":856,"index":532,"pubmedId":857,"fullCitation":858},"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21875351","21875351","Oxidative Stress Biomarkers - Allen J, Bradley RDEffects of oral glutathione supplementation on systemic oxidative stress biomarkers in human volunteersJ Altern Complement Med.(2011 Sep)",{"doi":23,"url":860,"index":861,"pubmedId":862,"fullCitation":863},"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24791752",2,"24791752","Anti-Oxidant Enzyme Profile - Richie JP Jr, Nichenametla S, Neidig W, Calcagnotto A, Haley JS, Schell TD, Muscat JERandomized controlled trial of oral glutathione supplementation on body stores of glutathioneEur J Nutr.(2015 Mar)","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/glutathione.avif","0.307","C10H17N3O6S","124886","MAGKPKLHYFNGRGRMEPIRWLLAAAGVEFEEKFIGSAEDLGKLRNDGSLMFQQVPMVEIDGMKLVQTRAILNYIASKYNLYGKDIKERALIDMYTEGMADLNEMILLLPLCRPEEKDAKIALIKEKTKSRYFPAFEKVLQSHGQDYLVGNKLSRADISLVELLYYVEELDSSLISNFPLLKALKTRISNLPTVKKFLQPGSPRKPPADAKALEEARKIFRF","1.6-5 hours (oral); longer with liposomal","70-18-8","C(CC(=O)N[C@@H](CS)C(=O)NCC(=O)O)[C@@H](C(=O)O)N",[873,878,883,886,891],{"name":874,"dose":875,"frequency":876,"route":877},"General antioxidant support","200-400 mg","1-2x weekly","IM or IV push",{"name":879,"dose":880,"frequency":881,"route":882},"Detoxification support","400-600 mg","2-3x weekly","IV push or slow infusion",{"name":884,"dose":880,"frequency":876,"route":885},"Immune support","IV or IM",{"name":887,"dose":888,"frequency":889,"route":890},"Neurological support (Parkinson's research)","1400 mg","3x weekly","IV infusion (clinical protocol)",{"name":892,"dose":893,"frequency":894,"route":895},"Maintenance","200 mg","1x weekly","IM or SubQ",[897,898,899,900],"GSH","L-glutathione","reduced glutathione","gamma-glutamylcysteinylglycine",[902,903,904,905,906],"Antioxidant defense and oxidative stress","Parkinson's disease","Detoxification research","Psychiatric disorders (adjunctive)","Nutritional biochemistry",{"human":908,"animal":909,"inVitro":910,"uncertain":911},"An early open study reported clinical benefit from repeated IV reduced glutathione in early Parkinson's disease, though later trials are small and mixed. A 2024 randomized trial found that adding IV glutathione to ketamine therapy improved depression outcomes. Pharmacokinetic studies show oral glutathione is very poorly absorbed, a key limitation for oral supplementation.","Animal models link glutathione depletion to oxidative injury and show that glutathione or its precursors restore antioxidant capacity in conditions such as acetaminophen toxicity and neurodegeneration models.","Cell and biochemical studies establish glutathione as the major intracellular thiol antioxidant, directly scavenging reactive oxygen species and serving as a cofactor for glutathione peroxidases and transferases.","Consumer claims for oral or IV glutathione - skin lightening, 'detox', anti-aging, immune boosting - are not supported by robust clinical evidence; oral bioavailability is poor and IV use for these purposes is not FDA approved.",[913,917,922],{"finding":914,"source":915,"year":750,"link":916,"evidenceLevel":46},"An open-label study reported clinical benefit from repeated intravenous reduced glutathione in patients with early, untreated Parkinson's disease.","Open-label clinical study (Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry)","https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-5846(96)00103-0",{"finding":918,"source":919,"year":920,"link":921,"evidenceLevel":46},"A pharmacokinetic study demonstrated very low systemic availability of orally administered glutathione in humans, undermining oral supplementation claims.","Pharmacokinetic study (European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology)",1992,"https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02284971",{"finding":923,"source":924,"year":458,"link":925,"evidenceLevel":46},"In a randomized trial in major depressive disorder, adding IV glutathione to standard ketamine therapy improved depression outcomes versus ketamine alone.","Randomized controlled trial (Psychiatry Research)","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38795698/","Human evidence for therapeutic glutathione use is thin: most trials are small, open-label or adjunctive, and results are mixed. Oral absorption is negligible, IV formulations are not FDA approved for the marketed wellness indications, and long-term safety data for repeated IV administration are lacking.","Glutathione is a ubiquitous intracellular tripeptide (gamma-Glu-Cys-Gly) and the body's main endogenous antioxidant. As a supplement it is given orally (very poorly absorbed), intravenously, or by inhalation in various unapproved protocols; the IV route bypasses the low oral bioavailability demonstrated in pharmacokinetic studies.",[929,932,935],{"question":930,"answer":931},"Does oral glutathione work?","Evidence shows oral glutathione is very poorly absorbed (low systemic bioavailability), so most oral products are unlikely to meaningfully raise plasma glutathione.",{"question":933,"answer":934},"Is IV glutathione FDA approved?","IV glutathione is not FDA approved for skin lightening, detox, or anti-aging uses; approved indications for glutathione-related products are limited.",{"question":936,"answer":937},"What is the Parkinson's disease evidence?","An early open study (1996) reported benefit from IV glutathione in early Parkinson's disease; subsequent trials are small and mixed, so it is not an established treatment.",{"id":939,"name":940,"slug":941,"description":942,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":15,"views":365,"shortDescription":943,"researchStatus":944,"peptideBenefits":945,"benefits":968,"peptideSideEffects":977,"sideEffects":987,"dosage":991,"mechanism":992,"safetyNote":148,"athleteWarning":993,"chemicalMakeup":994,"citations":995,"research":1166,"statsCache":1167,"imageUrl":1169,"molecularWeight":1170,"molecularFormula":1171,"pubchemId":1172,"sequence":1173,"halfLife":301,"administrationRoute":540,"casNumber":1174,"smiles":1175,"totalMentions":532,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"aliases":1176,"researchAreas":1182,"evidence":1187,"keyStudies":1192,"limitations":1204,"pharmacology":1205,"faqs":1206,"lastReviewed":359},27,"Humanin","humanin","Humanin is a 24-amino acid mitochondrial-derived peptide (MDP) encoded in the 16S ribosomal RNA region of mitochondrial DNA, discovered through its ability to protect neurons from amyloid-beta toxicity associated with Alzheimer's disease. Research demonstrates humanin possesses broad cytoprotective properties, protecting against cellular stress, oxidative damage, and apoptosis across multiple tissue types. The peptide acts through multiple mechanisms including binding to IGFBP-3, activating the STAT3 pathway, and modulating Bax-mediated apoptosis. Studies indicate humanin levels decline with age and may correlate with longevity in centenarians. Research shows protective effects in models of cardiovascular disease, diabetes, stroke, and age-related macular degeneration. Humanin improves insulin sensitivity and glucose homeostasis through peripheral and central mechanisms. Analogs with enhanced potency and stability (HNG, HNGF6A) have been developed for research applications. The peptide represents an important mediator of the retrograde signaling from mitochondria to the nucleus and other cellular compartments.","Mitochondrial peptide with neuroprotective and anti-aging properties","Research compound - Mitochondrial peptide",[946,949,952,955,958,961,963,966],{"id":195,"benefit":947,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":948,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},"Neuroprotection: Protects against Aβ toxicity","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40090538/",{"id":200,"benefit":950,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":951,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},"Longevity Association: P3S variant enriched in centenarians","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38520065/",{"id":953,"benefit":954,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},354,"Cytoprotection",{"id":956,"benefit":957,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},355,"Neuroprotection",{"id":959,"benefit":960,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},356,"Metabolic health",{"id":962,"benefit":34,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},357,{"id":964,"benefit":965,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},358,"Cellular survival",{"id":967,"benefit":63,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},359,[969,970,971,972,973,974,975,976],{"id":195,"benefit":947,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":948,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":200,"benefit":950,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":951,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":953,"benefit":954,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":956,"benefit":957,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":959,"benefit":960,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":962,"benefit":34,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":964,"benefit":965,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":967,"benefit":63,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},[978,981,984],{"id":979,"sideEffect":980,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},214,"Generally well-tolerated in studies",{"id":982,"sideEffect":983,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},213,"Limited human data",{"id":985,"sideEffect":986,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},215,"Rare injection site reactions",[988,989,990],{"id":979,"sideEffect":980,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":982,"sideEffect":983,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":985,"sideEffect":986,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"1-5mg daily","Mitochondrial peptide with cytoprotective effects","Not WADA banned - cytoprotective peptide safe for competitive athletes","24-amino acid mitochondrial peptide, sequence starts with Met-Ala-Pro-Arg-Gly...",[996,1002,1008,1014,1020,1027,1033,1039,1044,1051,1057,1062,1067,1073,1078,1084,1090,1095,1101,1107,1112,1117,1124,1130,1135,1141,1147,1154,1160],{"id":997,"title":998,"authors":999,"journal":1000,"year":157,"citationType":44,"doi":1001},103,"Research Progress on Signalling Pathways Related to Sepsis-Associated Acute Kidney Injury in Children.","Zhenkun Zhang, Meijun Sheng, Yiyao Bao, Chao Tang","Current issues in molecular biology","10.1038/cr.2015.139",{"id":1003,"title":1004,"authors":1005,"journal":1006,"year":157,"citationType":44,"doi":1007},104,"Redox-sensitive miRNAs and Humanin could mediate effects of exercise and astaxanthin on oxidative stress and inflammation in type 2 diabetes.","Aref Basereh, Karen Khoramipour, Najmeh Hosseini, Mahdieh HajHosseini, Adeleh Khodabakhshi","Scientific reports","10.1038/s41598-025-23914-y",{"id":1009,"title":1010,"authors":1011,"journal":1012,"year":157,"citationType":44,"doi":1013},105,"Mitochondrial-Derived Peptides: Implication in the Therapy of Neurodegenerative Diseases.","Rahul Thakur, Aman Chauhan, Hardika Moudgil, Sukhpal Singh, Rooma Devi","Molecular neurobiology","10.1021/acschemneuro.3c00140",{"id":1015,"title":1016,"authors":155,"journal":1017,"year":157,"citationType":158,"doi":1018,"researchPaperId":1019},53,"Humanin: Mitochondrial-Derived Peptide in Longevity","Current Cardiology Reviews","10.2174/011573403X375709250616134726","pubmed_40574402",{"id":1021,"title":1022,"authors":155,"journal":1023,"year":458,"citationType":1024,"doi":1025,"researchPaperId":1026},54,"Humanin and Longevity in APOE4 Carriers","Aging Cell","Clinical","10.1111/acel.14153","pubmed_38520065",{"id":1028,"title":1029,"authors":1030,"journal":1031,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":1032},870,"The role of humanin in the regulation of reproduction.","Lei H, Rao M","Biochimica et biophysica acta. General subjects","10.1016/j.bbagen.2021.130023",{"id":1034,"title":1035,"authors":1036,"journal":1037,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":1038},871,"Humanin and Its Pathophysiological Roles in Aging: A Systematic Review.","Coradduzza D, Congiargiu A, Chen Z, Cruciani S, Zinellu A, Carru C, Medici S","Biology","10.3390/biology12040558",{"id":1040,"title":1041,"authors":1042,"journal":1031,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":1043},872,"Humanin and Alzheimer's disease: The beginning of a new field.","Niikura T","10.1016/j.bbagen.2021.130024",{"id":1045,"title":1046,"authors":1047,"journal":1048,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":1050},873,"Humanin: Functional Interfaces with IGF-I.","Xiao J, Kim SJ, Cohen P, Yen K","Growth hormone & IGF research : official journal of the Growth Hormone Research Society and the International IGF Research Society",2016,"10.1016/j.ghir.2016.03.005",{"id":1052,"title":1053,"authors":1054,"journal":1055,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":1056},874,"Role of humanin, a mitochondrial-derived peptide, in cardiovascular disorders.","Rochette L, Meloux A, Zeller M, Cottin Y, Vergely C","Archives of cardiovascular diseases","10.1016/j.acvd.2020.03.020",{"id":1058,"title":1059,"authors":1060,"journal":1031,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":1061},875,"Cardio-protective role of Humanin in myocardial ischemia-reperfusion.","Gong Z, Goetzman E, Muzumdar RH","10.1016/j.bbagen.2021.130066",{"id":1063,"title":1064,"authors":1065,"journal":1037,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":1066},876,"Neuroprotective Action of Humanin and Humanin Analogues: Research Findings and Perspectives.","Karachaliou CE, Livaniou E","10.3390/biology12121534",{"id":1068,"title":1069,"authors":1070,"journal":1071,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":1072},877,"Humanin: A mitochondrial-derived peptide in the treatment of apoptosis-related diseases.","Hazafa A, Batool A, Ahmad S, Amjad M, Chaudhry SN, Asad J, Ghuman HF, Khan HM, Naeem M, Ghani U","Life sciences","10.1016/j.lfs.2020.118679",{"id":1074,"title":1075,"authors":1076,"journal":1012,"year":249,"citationType":167,"doi":1077},878,"Humanin: after the discovery.","Niikura T, Chiba T, Aiso S, Matsuoka M, Nishimoto I","10.1385/MN:30:3:327",{"id":1079,"title":1080,"authors":1081,"journal":1082,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":1083},879,"Humanin and diabetes mellitus: A review of in vitro and in vivo studies.","Boutari C, Pappas PD, Theodoridis TD, Vavilis D","World journal of diabetes","10.4239/wjd.v13.i3.213",{"id":1085,"title":1086,"authors":1087,"journal":1088,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":1089},880,"Mitochondrial Peptide Humanin Facilitates Chemoresistance in Glioblastoma Cells.","Peña Agudelo JA, Pidre ML, Garcia Fallit M, Pérez Küper M, Zuccato C, Nicola Candia AJ, Marchesini A, Vera MB, De Simone E, Giampaoli C, Amorós Morales LC, Gonzalez N, Romanowski V, Videla-Richardson GA, Seilicovich A, Candolfi M","Cancers","10.3390/cancers15164061",{"id":1091,"title":1092,"authors":1093,"journal":1031,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":1094},881,"The role of humanin in natural stress tolerance: An underexplored therapeutic avenue.","Wijenayake S, Storey KB","10.1016/j.bbagen.2021.130022",{"id":1096,"title":1097,"authors":1098,"journal":1099,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":1100},882,"Humanin: A mitochondria-derived peptide with emerging properties.","Rochette L","Annales de cardiologie et d'angeiologie","10.1016/j.ancard.2020.07.015",{"id":1102,"title":1103,"authors":1104,"journal":1012,"year":1105,"citationType":167,"doi":1106},883,"Humanin and the receptors for humanin.","Matsuoka M, Hashimoto Y",2010,"10.1007/s12035-009-8090-z",{"id":1108,"title":1109,"authors":1110,"journal":1006,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":1111},884,"[Gly14]-Humanin ameliorates high glucose-induced endothelial senescence via SIRT6.","Li M, Liu Z, Cao X, Xiao W, Wang S, Zhao C, Zhao Y, Xie Y","10.1038/s41598-024-81878-x",{"id":1113,"title":1114,"authors":1115,"journal":1031,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":1116},885,"Roles of humanin and derivatives on the pathology of neurodegenerative diseases and cognition.","Thiankhaw K, Chattipakorn K, Chattipakorn SC, Chattipakorn N","10.1016/j.bbagen.2022.130097",{"id":1118,"title":1119,"authors":1120,"journal":1121,"year":1122,"citationType":167,"doi":1123},886,"Humanin signal for Alzheimer's disease.","Matsuoka M","Journal of Alzheimer's disease : JAD",2011,"10.3233/JAD-2011-102076",{"id":1125,"title":1126,"authors":1127,"journal":1128,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":1129},887,"Humanin levels in human seminal plasma and spermatozoa are related to sperm quality.","Rao M, Wu Z, Wen Y, Wang R, Zhao S, Tang L","Andrology","10.1111/andr.12614",{"id":1131,"title":1132,"authors":1133,"journal":1031,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":1134},888,"Humanin derivative, HNG, enhances neurotransmitter release.","Ikegawa N, Kozuka A, Morita N, Murakami M, Sasakawa N, Niikura T","10.1016/j.bbagen.2022.130204",{"id":1136,"title":1137,"authors":1138,"journal":1139,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":1140},889,"Mitochondrial-derived peptide humanin as therapeutic target in cancer and degenerative diseases.","Zuccato CF, Asad AS, Nicola Candia AJ, Gottardo MF, Moreno Ayala MA, Theas MS, Seilicovich A, Candolfi M","Expert opinion on therapeutic targets","10.1080/14728222.2019.1559300",{"id":1142,"title":1143,"authors":1144,"journal":1145,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":1146},890,"The neuroprotective role of Humanin in Alzheimer's disease: The molecular effects.","Alqahtani SM, Al-Kuraishy HM, Al-Gareeb AI, Alexiou A, Fawzy MN, Papadakis M, Al-Botaty BM, Alruwaili M, El-Saber Batiha G","European journal of pharmacology","10.1016/j.ejphar.2025.177510",{"id":1148,"title":1149,"authors":1150,"journal":1151,"year":1152,"citationType":167,"doi":1153},891,"Humanin and age-related diseases: a new link?","Gong Z, Tas E, Muzumdar R","Frontiers in endocrinology",2014,"10.3389/fendo.2014.00210",{"id":1155,"title":1156,"authors":1157,"journal":1158,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":1159},892,"HUMANIN produced by human efferocytic macrophages promotes the resolution of inflammation.","Maraux M, Vetter M, Zuffo LD, Bonnefoy F, Wetzel A, Varin A, Lamarthée B, Tassy O, Ducloux D, Saas P, Cherrier T","Cell death & disease","10.1038/s41419-025-07909-1",{"id":1161,"title":1162,"authors":1163,"journal":1164,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":1165},893,"Potential Roles of Humanin on Apoptosis in the Heart.","Charununtakorn ST, Shinlapawittayatorn K, Chattipakorn SC, Chattipakorn N","Cardiovascular therapeutics","10.1111/1755-5922.12168",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":532,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":1168},"2026-01-05T22:12:07.919940","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/humanin.webp","2687.21","C119H204N34O32S2","16131438","MAPRGFSCLLLLTSEIDLPVKRRA","330936-69-1","CC[C@H](C)[C@@H](C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(=O)O)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(C)C)C(=O)N1CCC[C@H]1C(=O)N[C@@H](C(C)C)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCCN)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCNC(=N)N)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCNC(=N)N)C(=O)N[C@@H](C)C(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@H](CCC(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@H](CO)NC(=O)[C@H]([C@@H](C)O)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(C)C)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(C)C)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(C)C)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(C)C)NC(=O)[C@H](CS)NC(=O)[C@H](CO)NC(=O)[C@H](CC2=CC=CC=C2)NC(=O)CNC(=O)[C@H](CCCNC(=N)N)NC(=O)[C@@H]3CCCN3C(=O)[C@H](C)NC(=O)[C@H](CCSC)N",[1177,1178,1179,1180,1181],"HN","mitochondrial-derived peptide (MDP)","MT-RNR2-encoded peptide","HNG (S14G-humanin)","HNGF6A",[1183,1184,1185,1186],"Neuroprotection / Alzheimer's disease","Longevity research","Cardiovascular protection","Metabolic health (insulin sensitivity)",{"human":1188,"animal":1189,"inVitro":1190,"uncertain":1191},"No interventional clinical trials of humanin were found. Observational genetic studies link the humanin P3S variant with longevity in APOE4 carriers and enrichment in centenarians, suggesting a protective association but not demonstrating causality.","S14G-humanin (HNG), a more potent analog, improved cognitive deficits and reduced amyloid pathology in middle-aged APP/PS1 Alzheimer's model mice (2012). Other rodent studies report cytoprotection in models of ischemia, cardiac injury, and diabetes.","Cell-based assays show humanin protects neurons from amyloid-beta toxicity, binds IGFBP-3, activates STAT3 signaling, and inhibits Bax-mediated apoptosis.","Anti-aging, longevity, and metabolic claims circulating in consumer channels are unproven; human dosing, safety, and efficacy have not been tested in trials.",[1193,1198,1202],{"finding":1194,"source":1195,"year":1196,"link":1197,"evidenceLevel":50},"S14G-humanin improved cognitive deficits and reduced amyloid pathology in middle-aged APP/PS1 double-transgenic Alzheimer's model mice.","preclinical study (Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior)",2012,"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21993310/",{"finding":1199,"source":1200,"year":458,"link":1201,"evidenceLevel":46},"The humanin P3S variant is associated with longevity in APOE4 carriers and resists APOE4-induced brain pathology.","genetic association study","https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11258485/",{"finding":1203,"source":1200,"year":458,"link":951,"evidenceLevel":46},"The humanin P3S variant is enriched in centenarians, supporting a longevity association.","Evidence is overwhelmingly preclinical or observational. There are no human dosing, safety, or efficacy trials; the peptide is unstable in vivo, and analogs (e.g., HNG) are used in research. Anti-aging claims remain unproven.","Endogenous 24-amino-acid peptide encoded in mitochondrial 16S rRNA (MT-RNR2) and secreted from cells. Potency-enhanced analogs (e.g., S14G-humanin) were developed for stability; human pharmacokinetics of exogenous humanin are not established.",[1207,1210,1213],{"question":1208,"answer":1209},"What is humanin?","A 24-amino-acid mitochondrial-derived peptide encoded in the 16S rRNA region of mitochondrial DNA, discovered for its ability to protect neurons from amyloid-beta toxicity.",{"question":1211,"answer":1212},"Does humanin extend lifespan in humans?","No clinical data support that. Only observational genetic associations (e.g., the P3S variant in centenarians and APOE4 carriers) have been reported.",{"question":1214,"answer":1215},"Has humanin been tested in clinical trials?","No interventional human trials of humanin or its analogs were found as of this review.",{"id":1217,"name":1218,"slug":1219,"description":1220,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":15,"views":1221,"shortDescription":1222,"researchStatus":1223,"peptideBenefits":1224,"benefits":1254,"peptideSideEffects":1266,"sideEffects":1281,"dosage":1287,"mechanism":1288,"safetyNote":690,"athleteWarning":1289,"chemicalMakeup":1290,"citations":1291,"research":1564,"statsCache":1565,"imageUrl":1567,"molecularWeight":1568,"molecularFormula":1569,"pubchemId":1570,"sequence":1571,"halfLife":1572,"administrationRoute":1573,"casNumber":1574,"smiles":1575,"totalMentions":8,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"protocols":1576,"aliases":1596,"researchAreas":1602,"evidence":1607,"keyStudies":1612,"limitations":1626,"pharmacology":1627,"faqs":1628,"lastReviewed":359},42,"NAD-plus","nad-plus","NAD+ (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide) is a molecule found in every cell of your body that's absolutely essential for life. It's not technically a peptide, but it's crucial for understanding cellular health and aging. **Why does NAD+ matter?** Think of NAD+ as your cells' \"energy currency.\" It helps convert food into energy, repairs damaged DNA, and activates proteins called sirtuins that regulate aging. Without enough NAD+, your cells can't function properly. **The aging problem:** NAD+ levels decline significantly as you age — by age 50, you may have half the NAD+ you had at 20. This decline is linked to: • Decreased energy and metabolism • Impaired DNA repair • Mitochondrial dysfunction • Increased inflammation **What the research shows:** • NAD+ activates the AMPK/SIRT1/PGC-1α pathway — a master switch for cellular health • Supports mitochondrial function (your cells' \"power plants\") • May help protect against age-related diseases including neurodegeneration and heart disease • Precursors like NMN and NR can boost NAD+ levels **How people boost NAD+:** Supplements (NMN, NR, niacin), IV infusions, or lifestyle factors like fasting and exercise. --- **Sources:** Covarrubias AJ, et al. (2021) Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology | Xie N, et al. (2020) Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy. DOI:10.3390/ph18111723 | Verdin E, et al. (2015) Science",40,"Essential coenzyme for cellular energy and DNA repair","Supplement - Cellular cofactor",[1225,1228,1231,1233,1236,1238,1241,1243,1246,1249,1252],{"id":1226,"benefit":1227,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},170,"Enhanced cellular energy",{"id":1229,"benefit":1230,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},171,"DNA repair support",{"id":1232,"benefit":34,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},172,{"id":1234,"benefit":1235,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},173,"Metabolic optimization",{"id":1237,"benefit":957,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},174,{"id":1239,"benefit":1240,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},324,"Energy boost",{"id":1242,"benefit":66,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},325,{"id":1244,"benefit":1245,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},326,"Anti-aging support",{"id":1247,"benefit":1248,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},327,"Mitochondrial function",{"id":1250,"benefit":1251,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},328,"DNA repair",{"id":1253,"benefit":960,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},329,[1255,1256,1257,1258,1259,1260,1261,1262,1263,1264,1265],{"id":1226,"benefit":1227,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":1229,"benefit":1230,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":1232,"benefit":34,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":1234,"benefit":1235,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":1237,"benefit":957,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":1239,"benefit":1240,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":1242,"benefit":66,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":1244,"benefit":1245,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":1247,"benefit":1248,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":1250,"benefit":1251,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":1253,"benefit":960,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},[1267,1270,1273,1275,1278],{"id":1268,"sideEffect":1269,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},114,"Flushing",{"id":1271,"sideEffect":1272,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},115,"Nausea",{"id":1274,"sideEffect":112,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},116,{"id":1276,"sideEffect":1277,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},117,"Abdominal cramps",{"id":1279,"sideEffect":1280,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},118,"Rare allergic reactions",[1282,1283,1284,1285,1286],{"id":1268,"sideEffect":1269,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":1271,"sideEffect":1272,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":1274,"sideEffect":112,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":1276,"sideEffect":1277,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":1279,"sideEffect":1280,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"100-500mg daily","Cellular energy metabolism and DNA repair","Not WADA banned - cellular metabolism compound safe for competitive athletes","Dinucleotide (nicotinamide + adenine + ribose + phosphate groups)",[1292,1298,1304,1310,1316,1321,1327,1332,1337,1343,1349,1356,1362,1368,1374,1380,1386,1392,1398,1405,1410,1415,1421,1426,1430,1436,1442,1447,1453,1459,1465,1471,1477,1483,1489,1495,1501,1506,1511,1518,1523,1529,1535,1541,1547,1554,1559],{"id":1293,"title":1294,"authors":1295,"journal":822,"year":1296,"citationType":167,"doi":1297},1316,"NAD plus-pyridoxine and NAD plus-pyridoxamine complexes.","Anand VD, Carper WR",1971,"10.1016/0304-4165(71)90211-x",{"id":1299,"title":1300,"authors":1301,"journal":1302,"year":750,"citationType":167,"doi":1303},1317,"Role of NAD in regulating the adhE gene of Escherichia coli.","Leonardo MR, Dailly Y, Clark DP","Journal of bacteriology","10.1128/jb.178.20.6013-6018.1996",{"id":1305,"title":1306,"authors":1307,"journal":1308,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":1309},1318,"NAD+ Enhanced on Hearing Recovery in Sudden Sensorineural Hearing Loss: Randomized Controlled Trial.","Gao M, Guan Y, Yue X, Bao H, Li Q, Zheng Y, Ou Y, Yang H","The Laryngoscope","10.1002/lary.70173",{"id":1311,"title":1312,"authors":1313,"journal":742,"year":1314,"citationType":167,"doi":1315},1319,"Drosophila melanogaster alcohol dehydrogenase. Biochemical properties of the NAD+-plus-acetone-induced isoenzyme conversion.","Winberg JO, McKinley-McKee JS",1988,"10.1042/bj2510223",{"id":1317,"title":1318,"authors":1319,"journal":1320,"year":843,"citationType":167},1320,"Kinetic behaviour of NAD plus-specific isocitrate dehydrogenase from baker's yeast and inhibition by AMP.","Cennamo C, Razzoli L, Ferrari F","The Italian journal of biochemistry",{"id":1322,"title":1323,"authors":1324,"journal":1325,"year":843,"citationType":167,"doi":1326},1321,"A study of formaldehyde dismutation by liver alcohol dehydrogenase with NAD plus-analogs.","Gupta NK","Archives of biochemistry and biophysics","10.1016/0003-9861(70)90183-9",{"id":1328,"title":1329,"authors":1330,"journal":1331,"year":729,"citationType":167},1322,"CD38-mediated ribosylation of proteins.","Grimaldi JC, Balasubramanian S, Kabra NH, Shanafelt A, Bazan JF, Zurawski G, Howard MC","Journal of immunology (Baltimore, Md. : 1950)",{"id":1333,"title":1334,"authors":1335,"journal":1336,"year":849,"citationType":167},1323,"Cellular NAD+ and ATP levels in alkylation-induced cytotoxicity enhanced by an inhibitor of poly(ADP-ribose) synthesis.","Wells RL, Shibuya ML, Ben-Hur E, Elkind MM","Cancer biochemistry biophysics",{"id":1338,"title":1339,"authors":1340,"journal":1341,"year":729,"citationType":167,"doi":1342},1324,"Long-term effect of nadolol or nadolol plus isosorbide-5-mononitrate on renal function and ascites formation in patients with cirrhosis. GTIP Gruppo Triveneto per l'Ipertensione Portale.","Merkel C, Gatta A, Donada C, Enzo E, Marin R, Amodio P, Torboli P, Angeli P, Cavallarin G, Sebastianelli G","Hepatology (Baltimore, Md.)","10.1002/hep.1840220318",{"id":1344,"title":1345,"authors":1346,"journal":1347,"year":1348,"citationType":167},1325,"Prostaglandin metabolism. II. Identification of two 15-hydroxyprostaglandin dehydrogenase types.","Lee SC, Levine L","The Journal of biological chemistry",1975,{"id":1350,"title":1351,"authors":1352,"journal":1353,"year":1354,"citationType":167,"doi":1355},1326,"Photoaffinity labeling of D-(-)-beta-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase by (arylazido)-beta-alanyl-substituted nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide.","Yamaguchi M, Chen S, Hatefi Y","Biochemistry",1985,"10.1021/bi00339a028",{"id":1357,"title":1358,"authors":1359,"journal":1353,"year":1360,"citationType":167,"doi":1361},1327,"Studies of the pH dependence of the formation of binary and ternary complexes with liver alcohol dehydrogenase.","Eftink MR, Byström K",1986,"10.1021/bi00369a044",{"id":1363,"title":1364,"authors":1365,"journal":1366,"year":710,"citationType":167,"doi":1367},1328,"Pertussis toxin-catalyzed ADP-ribosylation of GTP-binding proteins with digoxigenin-conjugated NAD. Identification of the proteins in plasma membranes and nuclei.","Takei Y, Takahashi K, Kanaho Y, Katada T","FEBS letters","10.1016/0014-5793(94)80280-7",{"id":1369,"title":1370,"authors":1371,"journal":1353,"year":1372,"citationType":167,"doi":1373},1329,"Coenzyme binding by 3-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase, a lipid-requiring enzyme: lecithin acts as an allosteric modulator to enhance the affinity for coenzyme.","Rudy B, Dubois H, Mink R, Trommer WE, McIntyre JO, Fleischer S",1989,"10.1021/bi00439a007",{"id":1375,"title":1376,"authors":1377,"journal":1378,"year":849,"citationType":167,"doi":1379},1330,"Generation of reactive oxygen species and reduction of ferric chelates by microsomes in the presence of a reconstituted system containing ethanol, NAD+ and alcohol dehydrogenase.","Dicker E, Cederbaum AI","Alcoholism, clinical and experimental research","10.1111/j.1530-0277.1990.tb00479.x",{"id":1381,"title":1382,"authors":1383,"journal":1347,"year":1384,"citationType":167,"doi":1385},1331,"The crystal structure of Aquifex aeolicus prephenate dehydrogenase reveals the mode of tyrosine inhibition.","Sun W, Shahinas D, Bonvin J, Hou W, Kimber MS, Turnbull J, Christendat D",2009,"10.1074/jbc.M806272200",{"id":1387,"title":1388,"authors":1389,"journal":1390,"year":249,"citationType":167,"doi":1391},1332,"Neurochemical diagnosis of Alzheimer's dementia by CSF Abeta42, Abeta42/Abeta40 ratio and total tau.","Lewczuk P, Esselmann H, Otto M, Maler JM, Henkel AW, Henkel MK, Eikenberg O, Antz C, Krause WR, Reulbach U, Kornhuber J, Wiltfang J","Neurobiology of aging","10.1016/S0197-4580(03)00086-1",{"id":1393,"title":1394,"authors":1395,"journal":1302,"year":1396,"citationType":167,"doi":1397},1333,"Threonine formation via the coupled activity of 2-amino-3-ketobutyrate coenzyme A lyase and threonine dehydrogenase.","Marcus JP, Dekker EE",1993,"10.1128/jb.175.20.6505-6511.1993",{"id":1399,"title":1400,"authors":1401,"journal":1402,"year":1403,"citationType":167,"doi":1404},1334,"Evidence for a rabbit luteal ADP-ribosyltransferase activity which appears to be capable of activating adenylyl cyclase.","Abramowitz J, Jena BP","The International journal of biochemistry",1991,"10.1016/0020-711x(87)90049-8",{"id":1406,"title":1407,"authors":1408,"journal":709,"year":710,"citationType":167,"doi":1409},1335,"Failure to observe a relationship between bis-(beta-chloroethyl)sulfide-induced NAD depletion and cytotoxicity in the rat keratinocyte culture.","Lin P, Bernstein IA, Vaughan FL","10.1080/15287399409531890",{"id":1411,"title":1412,"authors":1413,"journal":742,"year":166,"citationType":167,"doi":1414},1336,"Severe pyridine nucleotide depletion in fibroblasts from Lesch-Nyhan patients.","Fairbanks LD, Jacomelli G, Micheli V, Slade T, Simmonds HA","10.1042/BJ20020148",{"id":1416,"title":1417,"authors":1418,"journal":1419,"year":1348,"citationType":167,"doi":1420},1337,"In vitro steroid metabolic studies in testicular 17 beta-reduction deficiency.","Goebelsmann U, Hall TD, Paul WL, Stanczyk FZ","The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism","10.1210/jcem-41-6-1136",{"id":1422,"title":1423,"authors":1424,"journal":1325,"year":1314,"citationType":167,"doi":1425},1338,"NADP-malate dehydrogenase from leaves of Zea mays: purification and physical, chemical, and kinetic properties.","Kagawa T, Bruno PL","10.1016/0003-9861(88)90497-3",{"id":1427,"title":1428,"authors":1429,"journal":1347,"year":1348,"citationType":167},1339,"Activation and inactivation of horse liver alcohol dehydrogenase with pyridoxal compounds.","Sogin DC, Plapp BV",{"id":1431,"title":1432,"authors":1433,"journal":1434,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":1435},1340,"Quality of life after primary septorhinoplasty in deviated- and non-deviated nose measured with ROE, FROI-17 and SF-36.","Bulut OC, Wallner F, Hohenberger R, Plinkert PK, Baumann I","Rhinology","10.4193/Rhino16.243",{"id":1437,"title":1438,"authors":1439,"journal":1440,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":1441},1341,"Effect of Dietary Coenzyme Q10 Plus NADH Supplementation on Fatigue Perception and Health-Related Quality of Life in Individuals with Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome: A Prospective, Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial.","Castro-Marrero J, Segundo MJ, Lacasa M, Martinez-Martinez A, Sentañes RS, Alegre-Martin J","Nutrients","10.3390/nu13082658",{"id":1443,"title":1444,"authors":1445,"journal":735,"year":1372,"citationType":167,"doi":1446},1342,"Vanadate-stimulated oxidation of NAD(P)H.","Liochev SI, Fridovich I","10.1016/0891-5849(89)90069-5",{"id":1448,"title":1449,"authors":1450,"journal":1451,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":1452},1343,"Mitochondrial NAD(P)(+) Transhydrogenase: From Molecular Features to Physiology and Disease.","Francisco A, Figueira TR, Castilho RF","Antioxidants & redox signaling","10.1089/ars.2021.0111",{"id":1454,"title":1455,"authors":1456,"journal":1457,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":1458},1344,"Restoring energy metabolism by NAD(+) supplement prevents alcohol-induced liver injury and boosts liver regeneration.","Liu Y, Cheng C, Gao H, Zhu XJ, He X, Zhou MX, Gao Y, Lu YW, Song XH, Xiao XH, Wang JB, Xu CJ, Ma ZT","Food science & nutrition","10.1002/fsn3.4159",{"id":1460,"title":1461,"authors":1462,"journal":1463,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":1464},1345,"NAD+ metabolism and therapeutic strategies in cardiovascular diseases.","Shi C, Wen Z, Yang Y, Shi L, Liu D","Atherosclerosis plus","10.1016/j.athplu.2024.06.001",{"id":1466,"title":1467,"authors":1468,"journal":1469,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":1470},1346,"Intracellular NAD(+) Depletion Confers a Priming Signal for NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation.","Shim DW, Cho HJ, Hwang I, Jung TY, Kim HS, Ryu JH, Yu JW","Frontiers in immunology","10.3389/fimmu.2021.765477",{"id":1472,"title":1473,"authors":1474,"journal":1475,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":1476},1347,"Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide: Biosynthesis, consumption and therapeutic role in cardiac diseases.","Tannous C, Booz GW, Altara R, Muhieddine DH, Mericskay M, Refaat MM, Zouein FA","Acta physiologica (Oxford, England)","10.1111/apha.13551",{"id":1478,"title":1479,"authors":1480,"journal":1481,"year":1105,"citationType":167,"doi":1482},1348,"Bacterial Na+-translocating ferredoxin:NAD+ oxidoreductase.","Biegel E, Müller V","Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America","10.1073/pnas.1010318107",{"id":1484,"title":1485,"authors":1486,"journal":1487,"year":1196,"citationType":167,"doi":1488},1349,"Efficient one-step production of (S)-1-phenyl-1,2-ethanediol from (R)-enantiomer plus NAD(+)-NADPH in-situ regeneration using engineered Escherichia coli.","Zhang R, Xu Y, Xiao R, Zhang B, Wang L","Microbial cell factories","10.1186/1475-2859-11-167",{"id":1490,"title":1491,"authors":1492,"journal":1493,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":1494},1350,"Exogenous NAD(+) Stimulates MUC2 Expression in LS 174T Goblet Cells via the PLC-Delta/PTGES/PKC-Delta/ERK/CREB Signaling Pathway.","Ma S, Yeom J, Lim YH","Biomolecules","10.3390/biom10040580",{"id":1496,"title":1497,"authors":1498,"journal":1366,"year":1499,"citationType":167,"doi":1500},1351,"NAD-dependent, PQQ-containing methanol dehydrogenase: a bacterial dehydrogenase in a multienzyme complex.","Duine JA, Frank J, Berkhout MP",1984,"10.1016/0014-5793(84)80249-5",{"id":1502,"title":1503,"authors":1504,"journal":1440,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":1505},1352,"NAD Supplement Alleviates Intestinal Barrier Injury Induced by Ethanol Via Protecting Epithelial Mitochondrial Function.","Li W, Zhou Y, Pang N, Hu Q, Li Q, Sun Y, Ding Y, Gu Y, Xiao Y, Gao M, Ma S, Pan J, Fang EF, Zhang Z, Yang L","10.3390/nu15010174",{"id":1507,"title":1508,"authors":1509,"journal":1347,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":1510},1353,"Coronavirus infection and PARP expression dysregulate the NAD metabolome: An actionable component of innate immunity.","Heer CD, Sanderson DJ, Voth LS, Alhammad YMO, Schmidt MS, Trammell SAJ, Perlman S, Cohen MS, Fehr AR, Brenner C","10.1074/jbc.RA120.015138",{"id":1512,"title":1513,"authors":1514,"journal":1515,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":1517},1354,"Improved biosynthesis of ethyl (S)-4-chloro-3-hydroxybutanoate by adding L-glutamine plus glycine instead of NAD+ in β-cyclodextrin-water system.","He YC, Zhang DP, Tao ZC, Lu Y, Ding Y, Liu F, Zhu ZZ, Rui H, Zheng GW, Zhang X","Bioresource technology",2015,"10.1016/j.biortech.2015.01.111",{"id":1519,"title":1520,"authors":1521,"journal":1419,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":1522},1355,"Obesity Is Associated With Low NAD(+)/SIRT Pathway Expression in Adipose Tissue of BMI-Discordant Monozygotic Twins.","Jukarainen S, Heinonen S, Rämö JT, Rinnankoski-Tuikka R, Rappou E, Tummers M, Muniandy M, Hakkarainen A, Lundbom J, Lundbom N, Kaprio J, Rissanen A, Pirinen E, Pietiläinen KH","10.1210/jc.2015-3095",{"id":1524,"title":1525,"authors":1526,"journal":1527,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":1528},1356,"The combined treatment of NAD(+) and atorvastatin ameliorates the development of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis in C57BL/6 mice.","Sun H, Wang J, Guo L, Wang Y, Zhang J, Wang J, Quan M, Li B","Journal of neuroimmunology","10.1016/j.jneuroim.2020.577429",{"id":1530,"title":1531,"authors":1532,"journal":1533,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":1534},1357,"Imaging NAD(H) Redox Alterations in Cryopreserved Alveolar Macrophages from Ozone-Exposed Mice and the Impact of Nutrient Starvation during Long Lag Times.","Xu HN, Floros J, Li LZ, Amatya S","Antioxidants (Basel, Switzerland)","10.3390/antiox10050767",{"id":1536,"title":1537,"authors":1538,"journal":1539,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":1540},1358,"A new water-soluble bacterial NADH: fumarate oxidoreductase.","Bertsova YV, Oleynikov IP, Bogachev AV","FEMS microbiology letters","10.1093/femsle/fnaa175",{"id":1542,"title":1543,"authors":1544,"journal":1545,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":1546},1359,"Rejuvenating Aged Hematopoietic Stem Cells Through Improvement of Mitochondrial Function.","Moon J, Kim HR, Shin MG","Annals of laboratory medicine","10.3343/alm.2018.38.5.395",{"id":1548,"title":1549,"authors":1550,"journal":1551,"year":1552,"citationType":167,"doi":1553},1360,"Amplification by enzymatic cycling.","Lowry OH","Molecular and cellular biochemistry",1980,"10.1007/BF00227440",{"id":1555,"title":1556,"authors":1557,"journal":822,"year":843,"citationType":167,"doi":1558},1361,"The redox state of NADplus-NADH systems in guinea pig liver during increased fatty acid oxidation.","Willms B, Kleineke J, Söling HD","10.1016/0304-4165(70)90094-2",{"id":1560,"title":1561,"authors":1562,"journal":1563,"year":1348,"citationType":167},1362,"[Oscillator generator in the lower portion of the glycolytic system].","Dynnik VV, Sel'kov EE","Biofizika",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":8,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":1566},"2026-01-05T22:12:08.201232","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/nad-plus.webp","663.43","C21H27N7O14P2","5893","MSSGIHVALVTGGNKGIGLAIVRDLCRLFSGDVVLTARDVTRGQAAVQQLQAEGLSPRFHQLDIDDLQSIRALRDFLRKEYGGLDVLVNNAGIAFKVADPTPFHIQAEVTMKTNFFGTRDVCTELLPLIKPQGRVVNVSSIMSVRALKSCSPELQQKFRSETITEEELVGLMNKFVEDTKKGVHQKEGWPSSAYGVTKIGVTVLSRIHARKLSEQRKGDKILLNACCPGWVRTDMAGPKATKSPEEGAETPVYLALLPPDAEGPHGQFVSEKRVEQW","Short","IV/SC/Oral","53-84-9","C1=CC(=C[N+](=C1)[C@H]2[C@@H]([C@@H]([C@H](O2)COP(=O)([O-])OP(=O)(O)OC[C@@H]3[C@H]([C@H]([C@@H](O3)N4C=NC5=C(N=CN=C54)N)O)O)O)O)C(=O)N",[1577,1580,1584,1587,1591,1593],{"name":1578,"dose":1579,"frequency":876,"route":885},"General Wellness & Energy","100-250mg",{"name":1581,"dose":1582,"frequency":881,"route":1583},"Anti-Aging Protocol","250-500mg","IV infusion",{"name":1585,"dose":1586,"frequency":876,"route":1583},"Cognitive Enhancement","500-1000mg",{"name":1588,"dose":1582,"frequency":1589,"route":1590},"Athletic Performance","2x weekly","IM injection",{"name":1592,"dose":1586,"frequency":889,"route":1583},"Recovery & Repair",{"name":1594,"dose":1579,"frequency":894,"route":1595},"Maintenance Therapy","SubQ or IM",[1597,1598,1599,1600,1601],"NAD+","Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide","Coenzyme I","NMN (precursor)","Nicotinamide riboside / NR (precursor)",[1603,1604,1605,1186,1606],"Cellular energy metabolism","DNA repair and sirtuin activation","Aging and age-related NAD+ decline","Neurodegeneration (e.g., Parkinson's disease)",{"human":1608,"animal":1609,"inVitro":1610,"uncertain":1611},"Oral NAD+ precursors are well tolerated and raise NAD+ levels in humans (Martens et al. 2018). A randomized trial found NMN improved muscle insulin sensitivity in prediabetic postmenopausal women (Yoshino et al. 2021). Newer studies (e.g., NAD-Brain, 2026) are probing NAD+ augmentation in blood and brain in Parkinson's disease.","Rodent studies show NAD+ precursors improve mitochondrial function, metabolism and healthspan-related phenotypes; effects on lifespan remain debated.","Cell studies demonstrate the NAD+ dependence of sirtuin and PARP (DNA repair) enzymes and of mitochondrial function.","Anti-aging and longevity claims in humans remain unproven; NAD+ precursors are not FDA-approved drugs; long-term safety and efficacy for age-related disease are not established.",[1613,1617,1621],{"finding":1614,"source":1615,"year":491,"link":1616,"evidenceLevel":46},"Nicotinamide riboside (1,000 mg/day for 6 weeks) was well tolerated and significantly elevated blood NAD+ in healthy middle-aged and older adults.","Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover trial (Nat Commun)","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29599478/",{"finding":1618,"source":1619,"year":465,"link":1620,"evidenceLevel":46},"In a randomized trial, NMN (250 mg/day for 10 weeks) increased muscle insulin sensitivity in postmenopausal women with prediabetes.","Randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial (Science)","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33888596/",{"finding":1622,"source":1623,"year":1624,"link":1625,"evidenceLevel":46},"NAD-Brain study reports pharmacokinetics of NAD+ augmentation in blood and brain using oral precursor supplementation in a Parkinson's disease context.","Clinical pharmacokinetic study (iScience)",2026,"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2589004226001392","Most human trials are small, short-term, and largely safety/pharmacokinetic; clinical endpoints (disease prevention, longevity) are unproven; NAD+ precursor supplements are not FDA-approved drugs; the insulin-sensitivity finding awaits replication.","NAD+ is an essential cellular coenzyme acting as a redox carrier and substrate for sirtuins and PARPs. NAD+ levels decline with age; precursors NMN and NR raise NAD+ via salvage pathways. Oral NR/NMN are absorbed and measurably increase blood NAD+; clinical pharmacokinetics of IV NAD+ infusions are not well documented.",[1629,1632],{"question":1630,"answer":1631},"Does NAD+ supplementation slow aging?","Preclinical data are promising, but no human trial has shown anti-aging or lifespan effects; current evidence supports safety and NAD+-raising, not a proven longevity benefit.",{"question":1633,"answer":1634},"Are NMN/NR supplements FDA-approved?","No. They are sold as dietary supplements in the US and are not approved as drugs.",{"id":1636,"name":1637,"slug":1638,"description":1639,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":15,"views":365,"shortDescription":1640,"researchStatus":1641,"peptideBenefits":1642,"benefits":1659,"peptideSideEffects":1666,"sideEffects":1675,"dosage":1679,"mechanism":1680,"safetyNote":148,"athleteWarning":149,"citations":1681,"research":1786,"statsCache":1787,"imageUrl":1790,"molecularWeight":1791,"molecularFormula":1792,"pubchemId":1793,"sequence":1794,"halfLife":1572,"administrationRoute":1795,"casNumber":1796,"smiles":1797,"totalMentions":1788,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"protocols":1798,"aliases":1808,"researchAreas":1812,"evidence":1816,"keyStudies":1821,"limitations":1826,"pharmacology":1827,"faqs":1828,"lastReviewed":359},22,"Pinealon","pinealon","Pinealon is a synthetic tripeptide (Glu-Asp-Arg) developed as part of the Khavinson peptide bioregulator family, designed to support brain health and cognitive function. The peptide is proposed to have specific affinity for brain tissue, potentially supporting neuronal function and protecting against age-related cognitive decline. Research suggests Pinealon may influence gene expression related to neuronal protection and neurotransmitter regulation. The Khavinson peptide approach is based on the concept of tissue-specific short peptides that may restore optimal gene expression patterns altered by aging or disease. Studies conducted primarily in Russian research institutions indicate potential benefits for memory, attention, and cognitive performance in aging subjects. Pinealon is typically administered as a nasal spray or sublingual preparation for enhanced brain delivery. While preliminary research is promising, the peptide requires larger controlled clinical trials to establish efficacy and safety. The approach represents an emerging field of peptide bioregulation in longevity and cognitive health research.","Brain bioregulator peptide for cognitive and neurological health","Research compound - Bioregulator peptide",[1643,1646,1649,1651,1654,1656],{"id":1644,"benefit":1645,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},282,"Brain health support",{"id":1647,"benefit":1648,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},283,"Cognitive enhancement",{"id":1650,"benefit":957,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},284,{"id":1652,"benefit":1653,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},285,"Memory improvement",{"id":1655,"benefit":34,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},286,{"id":1657,"benefit":1658,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},287,"Neuroregeneration",[1660,1661,1662,1663,1664,1665],{"id":1644,"benefit":1645,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":1647,"benefit":1648,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":1650,"benefit":957,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":1652,"benefit":1653,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":1655,"benefit":34,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":1657,"benefit":1658,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},[1667,1670,1673],{"id":1644,"sideEffect":1668,"description":23,"severity":1669,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Prooxidant activity (potential)","Moderate",{"id":1647,"sideEffect":1671,"description":23,"severity":1669,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":1672,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"May inhibit hematopoiesis","long-term",{"id":1650,"sideEffect":1674,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Generally well-tolerated short-term",[1676,1677,1678],{"id":1644,"sideEffect":1668,"description":23,"severity":1669,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":1647,"sideEffect":1671,"description":23,"severity":1669,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":1672,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":1650,"sideEffect":1674,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"100mcg daily","Neuroprotective peptide for brain health",[1682,1688,1693,1698,1704,1708,1712,1716,1720,1724,1730,1734,1738,1742,1746,1750,1756,1760,1766,1771,1777,1782],{"id":1683,"title":1684,"authors":155,"journal":1685,"year":1516,"citationType":430,"doi":1686,"researchPaperId":1687},76,"Pinealon: Short Peptide with Neuroprotective Properties","Bulletin of Experimental Biology and Medicine","10.1007/s10517-015-2981-z","pubmed_26390612",{"id":1689,"title":1690,"authors":1691,"journal":165,"year":1196,"citationType":167,"doi":1692},1502,"Effect of bioregulatory tripeptides on the culture of skin cells from young and old rats.","Voicekhovskaya MA, Chalisova NI, Kontsevaya EA, Ryzhak GA","10.1007/s10517-012-1527-9",{"id":1694,"title":1695,"authors":1696,"journal":1697,"year":1196,"citationType":167},1485,"Pinealon protects the rat offspring from prenatal hyperhomocysteinemia.","Arutjunyan A, Kozina L, Stvolinskiy S, Bulygina Y, Mashkina A, Khavinson V","International journal of clinical and experimental medicine",{"id":1699,"title":1700,"authors":1701,"journal":1702,"year":1122,"citationType":167,"doi":1703},1486,"Pinealon increases cell viability by suppression of free radical levels and activating proliferative processes.","Khavinson V, Ribakova Y, Kulebiakin K, Vladychenskaya E, Kozina L, Arutjunyan A, Boldyrev A","Rejuvenation research","10.1089/rej.2011.1172",{"id":1705,"title":1706,"authors":1707,"journal":214,"year":1516,"citationType":167},1487,"[Pinealon and Cortexin influence on behavior and neurochemical processes in 18-month aged rats within hypoxia and hypothermia].","Mendzheritsky AM, Karantysh GV, Ryzhak GA, Prokofiev VN",{"id":1709,"title":1710,"authors":1711,"journal":214,"year":1152,"citationType":167},1488,"[Regulation of content of cytokines in blood serum and of caspase-3 activity in brains of old rats in model of sharp hypoxic hypoxia with Cortexin and Pinealon].","Mendzheritskiĭ AM, Karantysh GV, Ryzhak GA, Dem'ianenko SV",{"id":1713,"title":1714,"authors":1715,"journal":214,"year":1516,"citationType":167},1489,"[EFFECT OF SYNTHETIC PEPTIDES ON AGING OF PATIENTS WITH CHRONIC POLYMORBIDITY AND ORGANIC BRAIN SYNDROME OF THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM IN REMISSION].","Meshchaninov VN, Tkachenko EL, Zharkov SV, Gavrilov IV, Katyreva IuE",{"id":1717,"title":1718,"authors":1719,"journal":214,"year":1196,"citationType":167},1490,"[Analysis of some parameters of biological age and adaptation possibilities of workers of locomotive brigades].","Nazimko VA, Morgul' EV, Petrova OA, Sheĭkhova RG, Kozina LS, Savenko MA, Lysenko DS",{"id":1721,"title":1722,"authors":1723,"journal":214,"year":229,"citationType":167},1491,"[Investigation of antihypoxic properties of short peptides].","Kozina LS",{"id":1725,"title":1726,"authors":1727,"journal":1728,"year":1122,"citationType":167,"doi":1729},1492,"Penetration of short fluorescence-labeled peptides into the nucleus in HeLa cells and in vitro specific interaction of the peptides with deoxyribooligonucleotides and DNA.","Fedoreyeva LI, Kireev II, Khavinson VKh, Vanyushin BF","Biochemistry. Biokhimiia","10.1134/S0006297911110022",{"id":1731,"title":1732,"authors":1733,"journal":214,"year":1049,"citationType":167},1493,"[Comparative analysis of different methods of geroprotective].","Myakotnykh VS, Torgashov MN, Egorin KV, Meshchaninov VN, Gavrilov VI, Borovkova TA, Zvezdina EM, Verzhbitskaya TY, Tkachenko EL",{"id":1735,"title":1736,"authors":1737,"journal":214,"year":260,"citationType":167},1494,"[Neuroprotective effects of peptides bioregulators in people of various age].","Umnov RS, Lin'kova NS, Khavinson VKh",{"id":1739,"title":1740,"authors":1741,"journal":214,"year":260,"citationType":167},1495,"[Effect of peptide geroprotectors on the navigation system learning and caspase-3 in brain structures in rats of different age].","Mendzheritski AM, Karantysh GV, Abramchuk VA, Ryzhak GA",{"id":1743,"title":1744,"authors":1745,"journal":214,"year":1122,"citationType":167},1496,"[Effects of introduction of short peptides before carotid artery occlusion on behaviour and caspase-3 activity in the brain of old rats].","Mendzheritskiĭ AM, Karantysh GV, Ivonina KO",{"id":1747,"title":1748,"authors":1749,"journal":214,"year":1196,"citationType":167},1497,"[The peptide correction of neurotic disorders among professional truck-drivers].","Bashkireva AS, Artamonova VG",{"id":1751,"title":1752,"authors":1753,"journal":1754,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":1755},1498,"EDR Peptide: Possible Mechanism of Gene Expression and Protein Synthesis Regulation Involved in the Pathogenesis of Alzheimer's Disease.","Khavinson V, Linkova N, Kozhevnikova E, Trofimova S","Molecules (Basel, Switzerland)","10.3390/molecules26010159",{"id":1757,"title":1758,"authors":1759,"journal":214,"year":229,"citationType":167},1499,"[Biological activity of regulatory peptides in model experiments in vitro].","Kozina LS, Arutiunian AV, Stvolinskiĭ SL, Khavinson VKh",{"id":1761,"title":1762,"authors":1763,"journal":1764,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":1765},1500,"Role of Mono- and Divalent Ions in Peptide Glu-Asp-Arg-DNA Interaction.","Silanteva IA, Komolkin AV, Morozova EA, Vorontsov-Velyaminov PN, Kasyanenko NA","The journal of physical chemistry. B","10.1021/acs.jpcb.8b10359",{"id":1767,"title":1768,"authors":1769,"journal":165,"year":1152,"citationType":167,"doi":1770},1501,"Short peptides stimulate serotonin expression in cells of brain cortex.","Khavinson VKh, Lin'kova NS, Tarnovskaya SI, Umnov RS, Elashkina EV, Durnova AO","10.1007/s10517-014-2496-y",{"id":1772,"title":1773,"authors":1774,"journal":1775,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":1776},1503,"Optimization of Jiuzao protein hydrolysis conditions and antioxidant activity in vivo of Jiuzao tetrapeptide Asp-Arg-Glu-Leu by elevating the Nrf2/Keap1-p38/PI3K-MafK signaling pathway.","Jiang Y, Wang R, Yin Z, Sun J, Wang B, Zhao D, Zeng XA, Li H, Huang M, Sun B","Food & function","10.1039/d0fo02852e",{"id":1778,"title":1779,"authors":1780,"journal":165,"year":1122,"citationType":167,"doi":1781},1504,"Effect of short peptides on expression of signaling molecules in organotypic pineal cell culture.","Khavinson VKh, Linkova NS, Chalisova NI, Dudkov AV, Koncevaya EA","10.1007/s10517-011-1473-y",{"id":1783,"title":1784,"authors":1785,"journal":214,"year":1516,"citationType":167},1505,"[Assessment of work ability index in evaluation of small peptides geroprotective effect].","Bashkireva AS, Kachan EY",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":1788,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":1789},11,"2026-01-05T22:12:10.493136","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/pinealon.webp","418.45","C15H26N6O8","10273502","EDR","SC/Oral","175175-23-2","C(C[C@@H](C(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@H](CCC(=O)O)N)CN=C(N)N",[1799,1802,1805],{"name":957,"dose":1800,"frequency":1801,"route":311},"5mg daily","Once daily",{"name":1585,"dose":1803,"frequency":1804,"route":311},"100-300μg","Daily or every other day",{"name":1806,"dose":1800,"frequency":1807,"route":311},"Anti-aging Protocol","20 days, 2-3x yearly",[1809,1810,1811],"EDR tripeptide","Glu-Asp-Arg tripeptide","Pinealon (Khavinson bioregulator)",[957,1813,1814,1815],"Brain aging and cognition","Antioxidant mechanisms","Peptide bioregulation (Khavinson group)",{"human":1817,"animal":1818,"inVitro":1819,"uncertain":1820},"No large, independently conducted human clinical trials of pinealon were identified; human data come mainly from the Khavinson group's clinical program, which is not widely accessible or replicated in major journals.","Rodent studies from the Khavinson group report improved learning/memory in aging models and protective effects on brain tissue.","A cell-based study found pinealon increased cell viability by suppressing free-radical levels and activating proliferative processes.","Broader 'bioregulator' claims — restoring age-related gene expression, cognitive anti-aging benefits — are largely unverified outside the originating research group and have not been confirmed in independent trials.",[1822],{"finding":1823,"source":1824,"year":1122,"link":1825,"evidenceLevel":343},"In cell-based experiments, pinealon increased cell viability by suppressing free-radical levels and activating proliferative processes.","In-vitro study (Bulletin of Experimental Biology and Medicine)","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21978084/","The literature is dominated by a single research group (Khavinson et al.), with limited independent replication. No large double-blind trials in major international journals were found; human efficacy for cognition or brain aging is unproven.","Synthetic tripeptide (Glu-Asp-Arg) in the Khavinson bioregulator family, typically administered intranasally or sublingually in research contexts; no well-characterized human pharmacokinetic data (half-life, dosing) were found in reliable sources.",[1829,1832,1835],{"question":1830,"answer":1831},"What is pinealon?","Pinealon is a synthetic tripeptide (Glu-Asp-Arg) developed by the Khavinson group as a short-chain peptide bioregulator proposed to support brain tissue.",{"question":1833,"answer":1834},"Is pinealon FDA approved?","No. It is an unapproved research compound, mainly studied by its originating group in Russia.",{"question":1836,"answer":1837},"Does pinealon improve cognition in humans?","Human clinical evidence is limited and largely unpublished in major international journals; no rigorous large trials confirm cognitive benefits.",{"id":1839,"name":1840,"slug":1841,"description":1842,"fdaApproved":28,"wadaBanned":15,"views":1788,"shortDescription":1843,"researchStatus":944,"peptideBenefits":1844,"benefits":1867,"peptideSideEffects":1876,"sideEffects":1903,"dosage":1911,"mechanism":1912,"safetyNote":148,"athleteWarning":149,"chemicalMakeup":1913,"citations":1914,"research":2220,"statsCache":2221,"imageUrl":2224,"molecularWeight":2225,"molecularFormula":2226,"pubchemId":2227,"halfLife":2228,"administrationRoute":540,"casNumber":2229,"smiles":2230,"totalMentions":2222,"dataCompleteness":1916,"hasResearchData":28,"protocols":2231,"aliases":2246,"researchAreas":2252,"evidence":2258,"keyStudies":2263,"limitations":2276,"pharmacology":2277,"faqs":2278,"lastReviewed":359},72,"SS-31 (Elamipretide)","ss-31","SS-31 (Elamipretide) is a cutting-edge peptide that targets the \"power plants\" of your cells — the mitochondria. Unlike typical antioxidants that mop up damage after it happens, SS-31 prevents damage at the source. **Why mitochondria matter:** Mitochondria produce over 90% of your cellular energy. When they dysfunction — which happens increasingly with age and disease — cells can't work properly, leading to fatigue, organ decline, and accelerated aging. **How SS-31 works:** SS-31 concentrates in the inner mitochondrial membrane where it stabilizes cardiolipin, a crucial molecule for energy production. This improves efficiency and dramatically reduces the \"exhaust\" (reactive oxygen species) that damages cells. **What the research shows:** • Enhances cellular energy production (ATP) • Protects heart, kidney, and brain tissue in injury models • May improve exercise capacity and reduce fatigue • Studied in clinical trials for mitochondrial diseases and heart failure • Could slow age-related functional decline **Clinical development:** Currently being studied for primary mitochondrial myopathy, heart failure, and age-related conditions. **Important to know:** SS-31 is not yet FDA-approved. Clinical trials are ongoing for various conditions involving mitochondrial dysfunction. --- **Sources:** Szeto HH, et al. (2014) British Journal of Pharmacology | Karaa A, et al. (2018) Neurology | Sabbah HN, et al. (2016) Circulation: Heart Failure","Mitochondrial-targeting peptide for cellular energy optimization (Elamipretide)",[1845,1848,1851,1853,1856,1858,1861,1864],{"id":1846,"benefit":1847,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},276,"Mitochondrial protection",{"id":1849,"benefit":1850,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},277,"Mental health support",{"id":1852,"benefit":34,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},278,{"id":1854,"benefit":1855,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},279,"Cellular energy enhancement",{"id":1857,"benefit":957,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},280,{"id":1859,"benefit":1860,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},281,"Cognitive support",{"id":267,"benefit":1862,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":1863,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},"Mitochondrial Protection: Stabilizes cardiolipin, enhances ATP","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39940712/",{"id":272,"benefit":1865,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":1866,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},"Cardiac Function: LV volume improvements","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29217757/",[1868,1869,1870,1871,1872,1873,1874,1875],{"id":1846,"benefit":1847,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":1849,"benefit":1850,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":1852,"benefit":34,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":1854,"benefit":1855,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":1857,"benefit":957,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":1859,"benefit":1860,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":267,"benefit":1862,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":1863,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":272,"benefit":1865,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":1866,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},[1877,1885,1890,1895,1896,1899,1901],{"id":487,"sideEffect":1878,"description":23,"severity":1879,"frequency":1880,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":1881,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":1882,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":1883,"management":1884,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},"Mild-Moderate side effect","Mild-Moderate","Very common (80-86%)","pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32096613/","Elamipretide (SS-31)","Immediately-hours","Rotate injection sites",{"id":494,"sideEffect":398,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":1886,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":1887,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":1882,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":1888,"management":1889,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Rare (1/21 led to withdrawal)","pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36246187/","During treatment","Discontinue if severe; resolves",{"id":501,"sideEffect":1878,"description":23,"severity":1879,"frequency":1891,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":1892,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":1882,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":1893,"management":1894,"doseDependent":15,"needsReview":15},"57% mild, 43% moderate","pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37268435/","Throughout","Supportive care",{"id":1237,"sideEffect":112,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":1897,"sideEffect":1898,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},176,"Rare systemic effects",{"id":1234,"sideEffect":1900,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Injection site reactions",{"id":1902,"sideEffect":125,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},175,[1904,1905,1906,1907,1908,1909,1910],{"id":487,"sideEffect":1878,"description":23,"severity":1879,"frequency":1880,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":1881,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":1882,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":1883,"management":1884,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},{"id":494,"sideEffect":398,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":1886,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":1887,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":1882,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":1888,"management":1889,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":501,"sideEffect":1878,"description":23,"severity":1879,"frequency":1891,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":1892,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":1882,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":1893,"management":1894,"doseDependent":15,"needsReview":15},{"id":1237,"sideEffect":112,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":1897,"sideEffect":1898,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":1234,"sideEffect":1900,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":1902,"sideEffect":125,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"40 mg Daily","Mitochondrial-targeted peptide for cellular energy","Tetrapeptide D-Arg-Dmt-Lys-Phe-NH₂ (mitochondria-targeted)",[1915,1921,1927,1934,1940,1946,1952,1958,1964,1969,1975,1981,1986,1992,1998,2003,2008,2013,2019,2025,2031,2037,2043,2048,2054,2060,2066,2072,2078,2084,2090,2095,2100,2106,2112,2117,2122,2128,2133,2139,2144,2150,2155,2161,2167,2173,2179,2185,2191,2197,2202,2208,2214],{"id":1916,"title":1917,"authors":1918,"journal":1919,"year":157,"citationType":44,"doi":1920},95,"Therapeutic Approaches Involving Mitochondria in the Treatment of Acute Kidney Injury.","Prisha S Patel, Navjot S Pabla, Amandeep Bajwa","Seminars in nephrology","10.1681/ASN.0000000000000338",{"id":1922,"title":1923,"authors":1924,"journal":1925,"year":157,"citationType":44,"doi":1926},96,"Innovative technologies for the treatment of dry age-related macular degeneration (AMD) - modern therapeutic perspectives and their future.","Przemysław Ciszewski, Alicja Drelichowska, Damian Pikor, Emilia Wiśniewska, Michał Azierski","Romanian journal of ophthalmology","10.1111/aos.15155",{"id":1928,"title":1929,"authors":155,"journal":1930,"year":465,"citationType":1931,"doi":1932,"researchPaperId":1933},55,"Elamipretide Phase 2/3 Trial in Barth Syndrome","Genetics in Medicine","RCT Phase II/III","10.1038/s41436-020-01006-8","pubmed_33461044",{"id":1935,"title":1936,"authors":1937,"journal":1938,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":1939},1764,"SS-31, a Mitochondria-Targeting Peptide, Ameliorates Kidney Disease.","Zhu Y, Luo M, Bai X, Li J, Nie P, Li B, Luo P","Oxidative medicine and cellular longevity","10.1155/2022/1295509",{"id":1941,"title":1942,"authors":1943,"journal":1944,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":1945},1765,"Elamipretide (SS-31) improves mitochondrial dysfunction, synaptic and memory impairment induced by lipopolysaccharide in mice.","Zhao W, Xu Z, Cao J, Fu Q, Wu Y, Zhang X, Long Y, Zhang X, Yang Y, Li Y, Mi W","Journal of neuroinflammation","10.1186/s12974-019-1627-9",{"id":1947,"title":1948,"authors":1949,"journal":1950,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":1951},1766,"SS-31 alleviated nociceptive responses and restored mitochondrial function in a headache mouse model via Sirt3/Pgc-1α positive feedback loop.","Shan Z, Wang Y, Qiu T, Zhou Y, Zhang Y, Hu L, Zhang L, Liang J, Ding M, Fan S, Xiao Z","The journal of headache and pain","10.1186/s10194-023-01600-6",{"id":1953,"title":1954,"authors":1955,"journal":1956,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":1957},1767,"SS-31 modification alleviates ferroptosis induced by superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles in hypoxia/reoxygenation cardiomyocytes.","Lu Q, Yao X, Zheng H, Ou J, You J, Zhang Q, Guo W, Xu J, Geng L, Liu Q, Pei N, Gong Y, Zhu H, Shen Y","Heliyon","10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e38584",{"id":1959,"title":1960,"authors":1961,"journal":1962,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":1963},1768,"SS-31@Fer-1 Alleviates ferroptosis in hypoxia/reoxygenation cardiomyocytes via mitochondrial targeting.","Zheng H, Ou J, Han H, Lu Q, Shen Y","Biomedicine & pharmacotherapy = Biomedecine & pharmacotherapie","10.1016/j.biopha.2025.117832",{"id":1965,"title":1966,"authors":1967,"journal":1481,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":1968},1769,"Mitochondrial protein interaction landscape of SS-31.","Chavez JD, Tang X, Campbell MD, Reyes G, Kramer PA, Stuppard R, Keller A, Zhang H, Rabinovitch PS, Marcinek DJ, Bruce JE","10.1073/pnas.2002250117",{"id":1970,"title":1971,"authors":1972,"journal":1973,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":1974},1770,"New insight for SS‑31 in treating diabetic cardiomyopathy: Activation of mitoGPX4 and alleviation of mitochondria‑dependent ferroptosis.","Xiong L, Hu H, Zhu F, Shi H, Fan X, Pan S, Zhu F, Zhang J, Yu Z, Shi Y","International journal of molecular medicine","10.3892/ijmm.2024.5436",{"id":1976,"title":1977,"authors":1978,"journal":1979,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":1980},1771,"SS-31 Improves Cognitive Function in Sepsis-Associated Encephalopathy by Inhibiting the Drp1-NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation.","Zhong L, Ren X, Ai Y, Liu Z","Neuromolecular medicine","10.1007/s12017-022-08730-1",{"id":1982,"title":1983,"authors":1984,"journal":1938,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":1985},1772,"SS-31 Protects Liver from Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury via Modulating Macrophage Polarization.","Shang L, Ren H, Wang S, Liu H, Hu A, Gou P, Lin Y, Zhou J, Zhu W, Shi X","10.1155/2021/6662156",{"id":1987,"title":1988,"authors":1989,"journal":1990,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":1991},1773,"SS-31: A promising therapeutic agent against bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis in Mice.","Gu Q, Wang Y, Zhang H, Yang W, Meng X, Zhao M","PloS one","10.1371/journal.pone.0315473",{"id":1993,"title":1994,"authors":1995,"journal":1996,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":1997},1774,"Evaluation of SS-31 as a Potential Strategy for Tendinopathy Treatment: An In Vitro Model.","Zhang X, Zhang Y, Zhang M, Nakagawa Y, Caballo CB, Szeto HH, Deng XH, Rodeo SA","The American journal of sports medicine","10.1177/03635465221107943",{"id":1999,"title":2000,"authors":2001,"journal":1006,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":2002},1775,"SS-31 treatment ameliorates cardiac mitochondrial morphology and defective mitophagy in a murine model of Barth syndrome.","Russo S, De Rasmo D, Rossi R, Signorile A, Lobasso S","10.1038/s41598-024-64368-y",{"id":2004,"title":2005,"authors":2006,"journal":1533,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":2007},1776,"Elamipretide(SS-31) Attenuates Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis by Inhibiting the Nrf2-Dependent NLRP3 Inflammasome in Macrophages.","Nie Y, Li J, Zhai X, Wang Z, Wang J, Wu Y, Zhao P, Yan G","10.3390/antiox12122022",{"id":2009,"title":2010,"authors":2011,"journal":773,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":2012},1777,"SS-31 inhibits the inflammatory response by increasing ATG5 and promoting autophagy in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated HepG2 cells.","Mo Y, Deng S, Ai Y, Li W","10.1016/j.bbrc.2024.149887",{"id":2014,"title":2015,"authors":2016,"journal":2017,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":2018},1778,"SS-31 inhibits mtDNA-cGAS-STING signaling to improve POCD by activating mitophagy in aged mice.","Ji Y, Ma Y, Ma Y, Wang Y, Zhao X, Jin D, Xu L, Ge S","Inflammation research : official journal of the European Histamine Research Society ... [et al.]","10.1007/s00011-024-01860-1",{"id":2020,"title":2021,"authors":2022,"journal":2023,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":2024},1779,"SS-31 as a Mitochondrial Protectant in the Treatment of Tendinopathy: Evaluation in a Murine Supraspinatus Tendinopathy Model.","Zhang X, Bowen E, Zhang M, Szeto HH, Deng XH, Rodeo SA","The Journal of bone and joint surgery. American volume","10.2106/JBJS.21.01449",{"id":2026,"title":2027,"authors":2028,"journal":2029,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":2030},1780,"Mitochondria-targeting peptide SS-31 attenuates ferroptosis via inhibition of the p38 MAPK signaling pathway in the hippocampus of epileptic rats.","Liu X, Wang FY, Chi S, Liu T, Yang HL, Zhong RJ, Li XY, Gao J","Brain research","10.1016/j.brainres.2024.148882",{"id":2032,"title":2033,"authors":2034,"journal":2035,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":2036},1781,"Application research of novel peptide mitochondrial-targeted antioxidant SS-31 in mitigating mitochondrial dysfunction.","Du X, Zeng Q, Luo Y, He L, Zhao Y, Li N, Han C, Zhang G, Liu W","Mitochondrion","10.1016/j.mito.2024.101846",{"id":2038,"title":2039,"authors":2040,"journal":2041,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":2042},1782,"Potential Therapeutic Candidates for Age-Related Macular Degeneration (AMD).","Nashine S","Cells","10.3390/cells10092483",{"id":2044,"title":2045,"authors":2046,"journal":773,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":2047},1783,"SS-31 reduces inflammation and oxidative stress through the inhibition of Fis1 expression in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated microglia.","Mo Y, Deng S, Zhang L, Huang Y, Li W, Peng Q, Liu Z, Ai Y","10.1016/j.bbrc.2019.09.077",{"id":2049,"title":2050,"authors":2051,"journal":2052,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":2053},1784,"SS-31 efficacy in a mouse model of Friedreich ataxia by upregulation of frataxin expression.","Liu Y, Cai J, Shen J, Dong W, Xu L, Fang M, Lin Y, Liu J, Ding Y, Qiao T, Li K","Human molecular genetics","10.1093/hmg/ddab232",{"id":2055,"title":2056,"authors":2057,"journal":2058,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":2059},1785,"SS-31 does not prevent or reduce muscle atrophy 7 days after a 65 kdyne contusion spinal cord injury in young male mice.","Graham ZA, DeBerry JJ, Cardozo CP, Bamman MM","Physiological reports","10.14814/phy2.15266",{"id":2061,"title":2062,"authors":2063,"journal":2064,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":2065},1786,"SS-31 protect retinal pigment epithelial cells from H(2) O(2) -induced cell injury by reducing apoptosis.","Bai J, Yang Y, Wu D, Yang F","Clinical and experimental pharmacology & physiology","10.1111/1440-1681.13484",{"id":2067,"title":2068,"authors":2069,"journal":2070,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":2071},1787,"SS-31 Targets NOS2 to Enhance Osteogenic Differentiation in Aged BMSCs by Restoring Mitochondrial Function.","Duan S, Zhang Q, Zhu J, Wang J","Organogenesis","10.1080/15476278.2025.2519649",{"id":2073,"title":2074,"authors":2075,"journal":2076,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":2077},1788,"SS-31 and NMN: Two paths to improve metabolism and function in aged hearts.","Whitson JA, Bitto A, Zhang H, Sweetwyne MT, Coig R, Bhayana S, Shankland EG, Wang L, Bammler TK, Mills KF, Imai SI, Conley KE, Marcinek DJ, Rabinovitch PS","Aging cell","10.1111/acel.13213",{"id":2079,"title":2080,"authors":2081,"journal":2082,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":2083},1789,"Elamipretide (SS-31) treatment attenuates age-associated post-translational modifications of heart proteins.","Whitson JA, Martín-Pérez M, Zhang T, Gaffrey MJ, Merrihew GE, Huang E, White CC, Kavanagh TJ, Qian WJ, Campbell MD, MacCoss MJ, Marcinek DJ, Villén J, Rabinovitch PS","GeroScience","10.1007/s11357-021-00447-6",{"id":2085,"title":2086,"authors":2087,"journal":2088,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":2089},1790,"Elamipretide (SS-31) Improves Functional Connectivity in Hippocampus and Other Related Regions Following Prolonged Neuroinflammation Induced by Lipopolysaccharide in Aged Rats.","Liu Y, Fu H, Wu Y, Nie B, Liu F, Wang T, Xiao W, Yang S, Kan M, Fan L","Frontiers in aging neuroscience","10.3389/fnagi.2021.600484",{"id":2091,"title":2092,"authors":2093,"journal":516,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":2094},1791,"Elamipretide: A Review of Its Structure, Mechanism of Action, and Therapeutic Potential.","Tung C, Varzideh F, Farroni E, Mone P, Kansakar U, Jankauskas SS, Santulli G","10.3390/ijms26030944",{"id":2096,"title":2097,"authors":2098,"journal":2082,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":2099},1792,"The mitochondrially targeted peptide elamipretide (SS-31) improves ADP sensitivity in aged mitochondria by increasing uptake through the adenine nucleotide translocator (ANT).","Pharaoh G, Kamat V, Kannan S, Stuppard RS, Whitson J, Martín-Pérez M, Qian WJ, MacCoss MJ, Villén J, Rabinovitch P, Campbell MD, Sweet IR, Marcinek DJ","10.1007/s11357-023-00861-y",{"id":2101,"title":2102,"authors":2103,"journal":2104,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":2105},1793,"Elamipretide (SS-31) Ameliorates Isoflurane-Induced Long-Term Impairments of Mitochondrial Morphogenesis and Cognition in Developing Rats.","Wu J, Hao S, Sun XR, Zhang H, Li H, Zhao H, Ji MH, Yang JJ, Li K","Frontiers in cellular neuroscience","10.3389/fncel.2017.00119",{"id":2107,"title":2108,"authors":2109,"journal":2110,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":2111},1794,"A ROS-Responsive Liposomal Composite Hydrogel Integrating Improved Mitochondrial Function and Pro-Angiogenesis for Efficient Treatment of Myocardial Infarction.","Zheng Z, Lei C, Liu H, Jiang M, Zhou Z, Zhao Y, Yu CY, Wei H","Advanced healthcare materials","10.1002/adhm.202200990",{"id":2113,"title":2114,"authors":2115,"journal":2082,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":2116},1795,"Aging, mitochondrial dysfunction, and cerebral microhemorrhages: a preclinical evaluation of SS-31 (elamipretide) and development of a high-throughput machine learning-driven imaging pipeline for cerebromicrovascular protection therapeutic screening.","Patai R, Patel K, Csik B, Gulej R, Nagaraja RY, Nagy D, Chandragiri SS, Shanmugarama S, Kordestan KV, Nagykaldi M, Ekambaram S, Ungvari A, Yabluchanskiy A, Tarantini S, Benyo Z, Csiszar A, Ungvari Z, Nyul-Toth A","10.1007/s11357-025-01634-5",{"id":2118,"title":2119,"authors":2120,"journal":2082,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":2121},1796,"Age-related disruption of the proteome and acetylome in mouse hearts is associated with loss of function and attenuated by elamipretide (SS-31) and nicotinamide mononucleotide (NMN) treatment.","Whitson JA, Johnson R, Wang L, Bammler TK, Imai SI, Zhang H, Fredrickson J, Latorre-Esteves E, Bitto A, MacCoss MJ, Rabinovitch PS","10.1007/s11357-022-00564-w",{"id":2123,"title":2124,"authors":2125,"journal":2126,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":2127},1797,"Neuroprotective Effects of a Small Mitochondrially-Targeted Tetrapeptide Elamipretide in Neurodegeneration.","Nhu NT, Xiao SY, Liu Y, Kumar VB, Cui ZY, Lee SD","Frontiers in integrative neuroscience","10.3389/fnint.2021.747901",{"id":2129,"title":2130,"authors":2131,"journal":1944,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":2132},1798,"Elamipretide alleviates pyroptosis in traumatically injured spinal cord by inhibiting cPLA2-induced lysosomal membrane permeabilization.","Zhang H, Chen Y, Li F, Wu C, Cai W, Ye H, Su H, He M, Yang L, Wang X, Zhou K, Ni W","10.1186/s12974-023-02690-4",{"id":2134,"title":2135,"authors":2136,"journal":2137,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":2138},1799,"Comprehensive dry eye therapy: overcoming ocular surface barrier and combating inflammation, oxidation, and mitochondrial damage.","Xia Y, Zhang Y, Du Y, Wang Z, Cheng L, Du Z","Journal of nanobiotechnology","10.1186/s12951-024-02503-7",{"id":2140,"title":2141,"authors":2142,"journal":1938,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":2143},1800,"SS-31 Provides Neuroprotection by Reversing Mitochondrial Dysfunction after Traumatic Brain Injury.","Zhu Y, Wang H, Fang J, Dai W, Zhou J, Wang X, Zhou M","10.1155/2018/4783602",{"id":2145,"title":2146,"authors":2147,"journal":2148,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":2149},1801,"SS-31 mitigates oxidative stress and restores mitochondrial function in cigarette smoke-damaged oral epithelial cells via PINK1-mediated mitophagy.","Ye P, Liu H, Qin Y, Li Z, Huang Z, Bu X, Peng Q, Duan N, Wang W, Wang X","Chemico-biological interactions","10.1016/j.cbi.2024.111166",{"id":2151,"title":2152,"authors":2153,"journal":504,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":2154},1802,"Mitochondrial dysfunction and beneficial effects of mitochondria-targeted small peptide SS-31 in Diabetes Mellitus and Alzheimer's disease.","Ding XW, Robinson M, Li R, Aldhowayan H, Geetha T, Babu JR","10.1016/j.phrs.2021.105783",{"id":2156,"title":2157,"authors":2158,"journal":2159,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":2160},1803,"Double-network hydrogel enhanced by SS31-loaded mesoporous polydopamine nanoparticles: Symphonic collaboration of near-infrared photothermal antibacterial effect and mitochondrial maintenance for full-thickness wound healing in diabetes mellitus.","Deng QS, Gao Y, Rui BY, Li XR, Liu PL, Han ZY, Wei ZY, Zhang CR, Wang F, Dawes H, Zhu TH, Tao SC, Guo SC","Bioactive materials","10.1016/j.bioactmat.2023.04.004",{"id":2162,"title":2163,"authors":2164,"journal":2165,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":2166},1804,"SS31 alleviates LPS-induced acute lung injury by inhibiting inflammatory responses through the S100A8/NLRP3/GSDMD signaling pathway.","Luo P, Gu Q, Wang J, Li X, Li N, Yang W, Meng X, Zhao M","European journal of medical research","10.1186/s40001-024-02169-9",{"id":2168,"title":2169,"authors":2170,"journal":2171,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":2172},1805,"An SS31-rapamycin conjugate via RBC hitchhiking for reversing acute kidney injury.","Yu B, Liu Y, Zhang Y, Xu L, Jin K, Sun A, Zhao X, Wang Y, Liu H","Biomaterials","10.1016/j.biomaterials.2023.122383",{"id":2174,"title":2175,"authors":2176,"journal":2177,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":2178},1806,"SS31 Alleviates Pressure Overload-Induced Heart Failure Caused by Sirt3-Mediated Mitochondrial Fusion.","Suo M, Qi Y, Liu L, Zhang C, Li J, Yan X, Zhang C, Ti Y, Chen T, Bu P","Frontiers in cardiovascular medicine","10.3389/fcvm.2022.858594",{"id":2180,"title":2181,"authors":2182,"journal":2183,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":2184},1807,"SS31 Ameliorates Podocyte Injury via Inhibiting OMA1-Mediated Hydrolysis of OPA1 in Diabetic Kidney Disease.","Yang Q, Xie W, Wang X, Luo J, Zhou Y, Cao H, Sun Q, Jiang L, Yang J","Frontiers in pharmacology","10.3389/fphar.2021.707006",{"id":2186,"title":2187,"authors":2188,"journal":2189,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":2190},1808,"SS31, a mitochondrially targeted antioxidant, prevents sepsis-induced reductions in diaphragm strength and endurance.","Supinski GS, Wang L, Schroder EA, Callahan LAP","Journal of applied physiology (Bethesda, Md. : 1985)","10.1152/japplphysiol.00240.2019",{"id":2192,"title":2193,"authors":2194,"journal":2195,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":2196},1809,"SS31 Confers Cerebral Protection by Reversing Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Early Brain Injury Following Subarachnoid Hemorrhage, via the Nrf2- and PGC-1α-Dependent Pathways.","Zhou J, Shen R, Makale EC, Zhong W, Chen Z, Huang Q","Neurochemical research","10.1007/s11064-022-03850-3",{"id":2198,"title":2199,"authors":2200,"journal":2177,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":2201},1810,"SS31 Ameliorates Oxidative Stress via the Restoration of Autophagic Flux to Protect Aged Mice From Hind Limb Ischemia.","Yang Q, Li C, Chen Q","10.3389/fcvm.2022.789331",{"id":2203,"title":2204,"authors":2205,"journal":2206,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":2207},1811,"SS31 Ameliorates Sepsis-Induced Heart Injury by Inhibiting Oxidative Stress and Inflammation.","Liu Y, Yang W, Sun X, Xie L, Yang Y, Sang M, Jiao R","Inflammation","10.1007/s10753-019-01081-3",{"id":2209,"title":2210,"authors":2211,"journal":2212,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":2213},1812,"Mitochondrial-Targeted Antioxidant Peptide SS31 Prevents RPE Cell Death under Oxidative Stress.","He Y, Chen Z, Zhang R, Quan Z, Xu Y, He B, Ren Y","BioMed research international","10.1155/2022/6180349",{"id":2215,"title":2216,"authors":2217,"journal":2218,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":2219},1813,"SS31 attenuates oxidative stress and neuronal apoptosis in early brain injury following subarachnoid hemorrhage possibly by the mitochondrial pathway.","Shen R, Zhou J, Li G, Chen W, Zhong W, Chen Z","Neuroscience letters","10.1016/j.neulet.2019.134654",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":2222,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":2223},3,"2026-01-05T22:12:04.819545","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/ss-31.webp","639.79","C32H49N9O5","11299052","Variable","736992-21-5","CC1=CC(=CC(=C1C[C@@H](C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCCN)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC2=CC=CC=C2)C(=O)N)NC(=O)[C@@H](CCCN=C(N)N)N)C)O",[2232,2234,2237,2241],{"name":2233,"dose":320,"frequency":1801,"route":311},"General Mitochondrial Support",{"name":1588,"dose":2235,"frequency":2236,"route":311},"10-20mg","Once daily pre-workout",{"name":2238,"dose":2239,"frequency":1801,"route":2240},"Clinical Protocols","40mg","Subcutaneous or IV",{"name":2242,"dose":2243,"frequency":2244,"route":2245},"Acute Cardioprotection","0.25mg/kg/hr","Continuous infusion","Intravenous",[2247,2248,2249,2250,2251],"SS-31","Elamipretide","Bendavia","MTP-131","Forzinity (approved brand)",[2253,2254,2255,2256,2257],"Mitochondrial medicine","Barth syndrome","Heart failure","Mitochondrial myopathy","Ischemia-reperfusion injury",{"human":2259,"animal":2260,"inVitro":2261,"uncertain":2262},"Elamipretide received FDA accelerated approval (Sept 2025) as the first treatment for Barth syndrome (brand name Forzinity) based on the TAZPOWER trial and supporting data. Earlier trials in heart failure (Circ Heart Fail 2018, PMID 29282381) and primary mitochondrial myopathy (Karaa et al., Neurology 2018) reported safety with mixed efficacy signals.","Preclinical models show SS-31 concentrates in the inner mitochondrial membrane, binds cardiolipin, reduces reactive oxygen species, and improves mitochondrial energetics in cardiac ischemia-reperfusion, renal, and neurodegenerative injury models.","Cell assays demonstrate cardiolipin stabilization, restoration of cristae structure, improved ATP production, and reduced oxidative stress in stressed mitochondria.","Accelerated approval is conditional on confirmatory trials; indications beyond Barth syndrome (heart failure, myopathy, aging) are not approved, and efficacy in those settings remains unproven or mixed.",[2264,2268,2272],{"finding":2265,"source":2266,"year":157,"link":2267,"evidenceLevel":46},"FDA granted accelerated approval to elamipretide (Forzinity) as the first treatment for Barth syndrome.","FDA approval (accelerated)","https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-grants-accelerated-approval-first-treatment-barth-syndrome",{"finding":2269,"source":2270,"year":491,"link":2271,"evidenceLevel":46},"A randomized, placebo-controlled trial of elamipretide in heart failure with reduced ejection fraction demonstrated safety and favorable signals on cardiac structure/function but did not meet all primary endpoints.","Randomized, placebo-controlled trial (Circ Heart Fail)","https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.117.004389",{"finding":2273,"source":2274,"year":465,"link":2275,"evidenceLevel":46},"A phase 2/3 randomized clinical trial followed by open-label extension (TAZPOWER) evaluated elamipretide in Barth syndrome and contributed efficacy/safety data supporting its approval.","Phase 2/3 randomized clinical trial + open-label extension","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33077895/","Approval is accelerated (requires confirmatory trials); trials in heart failure and mitochondrial myopathy showed mixed results; long-term outcomes data are limited; use for general 'mitochondrial health' or anti-aging is off-label and unsupported.","Small mitochondrial-targeting tetrapeptide (D-Arg-dimethylTyr-Lys-Phe-NH2); administered subcutaneously (Forzinity); selectively partitions into the inner mitochondrial membrane, binds cardiolipin, stabilizes cristae, and improves electron transport efficiency while reducing ROS. Half-life is short, requiring frequent dosing.",[2279,2282],{"question":2280,"answer":2281},"Is SS-31 the same as the FDA-approved Forzinity?","Yes - Forzinity is the approved brand of elamipretide (SS-31), granted accelerated approval in 2025 specifically for Barth syndrome.",{"question":2283,"answer":2284},"Can SS-31 be used for general anti-aging?","No approved indication supports that; approved use is limited to Barth syndrome, with confirmatory trials pending. Other uses are investigational.",{"id":2286,"name":2287,"slug":2288,"description":2289,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":28,"views":2290,"shortDescription":2291,"researchStatus":2292,"peptideBenefits":2293,"benefits":2323,"peptideSideEffects":2337,"sideEffects":2352,"dosage":2358,"mechanism":2359,"safetyNote":2360,"athleteWarning":149,"chemicalMakeup":2361,"citations":2362,"research":2484,"statsCache":2485,"imageUrl":2488,"molecularWeight":2489,"molecularFormula":2490,"pubchemId":2491,"sequence":2492,"halfLife":2493,"administrationRoute":2494,"casNumber":2495,"smiles":2496,"totalMentions":2486,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"aliases":2497,"researchAreas":2501,"evidence":2506,"keyStudies":2511,"limitations":2524,"pharmacology":2525,"faqs":2526,"lastReviewed":359},29,"Thymalin","thymalin","Thymulin (Facteur Thymique Sérique, FTS) is a nonapeptide hormone produced by thymic epithelial cells that requires zinc for biological activity. The zinc-thymulin complex plays essential roles in T-cell differentiation, maturation, and immune system development. Research demonstrates thymulin modulates multiple immune functions including T-cell subset balance, cytokine production, and immune cell activation. As the thymus involutes with age, thymulin levels decline significantly, contributing to age-related immune dysfunction (immunosenescence). Studies show thymulin supplementation may restore some immune parameters in aging animal models. The peptide influences neuroendocrine-immune interactions through effects on hypothalamic-pituitary function. Research indicates potential applications for immune reconstitution, autoimmune conditions, and age-related immune decline. Thymulin has also shown analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties independent of its immune effects. The zinc dependence makes adequate zinc status essential for thymulin function. Clinical applications remain limited by the peptide's short half-life and need for specific delivery methods.",6,"Thymus extract peptide for immune system restoration","Research compound - Thymic peptide",[2294,2296,2299,2301,2304,2306,2308,2310,2312,2314,2316,2318,2321],{"id":2295,"benefit":34,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},374,{"id":2297,"benefit":2298,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},376,"Immune system balance",{"id":180,"benefit":2300,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":45,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},"Mortality Reduction: 2.0-2.1 fold decrease; 4.1-fold with Epithalamin",{"id":185,"benefit":2302,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":2303,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},"COVID-19 Support: Accelerated decline in IL-6, CRP, D-dimer","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33575961/",{"id":777,"benefit":2305,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},"Regulates thymus function",{"id":783,"benefit":2307,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},"Immune system correction",{"id":789,"benefit":2309,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},"Bioregulator.",{"id":2311,"benefit":2305,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},835,{"id":2313,"benefit":2307,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},836,{"id":2315,"benefit":2309,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},837,{"id":2317,"benefit":884,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},372,{"id":2319,"benefit":2320,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},373,"T-cell regulation",{"id":2322,"benefit":66,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},375,[2324,2325,2326,2327,2328,2329,2330,2331,2332,2333,2334,2335,2336],{"id":2295,"benefit":34,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":2297,"benefit":2298,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":180,"benefit":2300,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":45,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":185,"benefit":2302,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":2303,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":777,"benefit":2305,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},{"id":783,"benefit":2307,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},{"id":789,"benefit":2309,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},{"id":2311,"benefit":2305,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},{"id":2313,"benefit":2307,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},{"id":2315,"benefit":2309,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},{"id":2317,"benefit":884,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":2319,"benefit":2320,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":2322,"benefit":66,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},[2338,2341,2343,2346,2349],{"id":2339,"sideEffect":2340,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},220,"Generally well-tolerated",{"id":2342,"sideEffect":986,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},222,{"id":2344,"sideEffect":2345,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},221,"Limited Western safety data",{"id":2347,"sideEffect":2348,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},297,"Minimal adverse effects",{"id":2350,"sideEffect":2351,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},298,"Decades of clinical use in Russia",[2353,2354,2355,2356,2357],{"id":2339,"sideEffect":2340,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":2342,"sideEffect":986,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":2344,"sideEffect":2345,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":2347,"sideEffect":2348,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":2350,"sideEffect":2351,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"10mg daily for 10 days","Thymus extract peptide for immune support","Research compound with limited Western clinical data. Used clinically in some countries.","Thymic peptide complex, mixture of bioregulatory peptides",[2363,2368,2372,2377,2381,2387,2393,2398,2403,2408,2410,2415,2420,2426,2431,2436,2441,2446,2451,2455,2460,2465,2470,2474,2479],{"id":2364,"title":2365,"authors":2366,"journal":165,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":2367},1896,"Thymalin: Activation of Differentiation of Human Hematopoietic Stem Cells.","Khavinson VK, Linkova NS, Kvetnoy IM, Polyakova VO, Drobintseva AO, Kvetnaia TV, Ivko OM","10.1007/s10517-020-05016-z",{"id":2369,"title":2370,"authors":2371,"journal":214,"year":166,"citationType":167},1897,"[Geroprotective effect of thymalin and epithalamin].","Khavinson VKh, Morozov VG",{"id":2373,"title":2374,"authors":2375,"journal":516,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":2376},1898,"The Influence of KE and EW Dipeptides in the Composition of the Thymalin Drug on Gene Expression and Protein Synthesis Involved in the Pathogenesis of COVID-19.","Linkova N, Khavinson V, Diatlova A, Petukhov M, Vladimirova E, Sukhareva M, Ilina A","10.3390/ijms241713377",{"id":2378,"title":2379,"authors":2380,"journal":214,"year":437,"citationType":167},1899,"[Morphological compound and indicators of the blood clotting system in severe COVID-19 patients of middle aged and elderly during treatment of Tocilizumab and Thymalin.].","Kuznik BI, Shapovalov KG, Smolyakov YN, Lukyanov SA, Tereshkov PP, Kazantseva LS, Linkova NS",{"id":2382,"title":2383,"authors":2384,"journal":2385,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":2386},1900,"Reparative osteogenesis in mandible in cases of filling a bone defect with hydroxyapatite-containing osteotropic material and injecting the surrounding soft tissues with thymalin: experimental and morphological study.","Boiko AA, Malanchuk VA, Myroshnychenko MS","Wiadomosci lekarskie (Warsaw, Poland : 1960)","10.36740/WLek202401110",{"id":2388,"title":2389,"authors":2390,"journal":2391,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":2392},1901,"Expression features of T-lymphocytes, B-lymphocytes and macrophages in the post-traumatic regenerate of the mandible rats under conditions of filling a bone defect with hydroxyapatite-containing osteotropic material and thymalin injecting the surrounding soft tissues.","Boiko AA, Malanchuk VA, Myroshnychenko MS, Markovska OV, Shapkin AS, Marakushyn DI","Polski merkuriusz lekarski : organ Polskiego Towarzystwa Lekarskiego","10.36740/Merkur202402105",{"id":2394,"title":2395,"authors":2396,"journal":165,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":2397},1902,"Effect of Thymalin on the Tumor and Thymus under Conditions of Activation Therapy In Vivo.","Zhukova GV, Schikhlyarova AI, Barteneva TA, Shevchenko AN, Zakharyuta FM","10.1007/s10517-018-4104-z",{"id":2399,"title":2400,"authors":2401,"journal":165,"year":173,"citationType":167,"doi":2402},1903,"Thymalin in developing respiratory organs of human fetus.","Khlystova ZS, Kalinina II, Shmeleva SP","10.1023/a:1025449923475",{"id":2404,"title":2405,"authors":2406,"journal":165,"year":166,"citationType":167,"doi":2407},1904,"Age-related changes of thymalin content in human epidermis.","Khlystova ZS, Kalinina II, Shmeleva SP, Ryabchikov OP, Khavinson VKh","10.1023/a:1020214816056",{"id":2409,"title":207,"authors":208,"journal":209,"year":166,"citationType":167},1905,{"id":2411,"title":2412,"authors":2413,"journal":2414,"year":1499,"citationType":167},1906,"[Use of thymalin in trauma patients].","Gurevich KIa, Khavinson VKh, Morozov VG","Vestnik khirurgii imeni I. I. Grekova",{"id":2416,"title":2417,"authors":2418,"journal":2419,"year":1499,"citationType":167},1907,"[Thymalin as a modulator of immunogenesis and hemostasis].","Kuznik BI, Budazhabon GB, Budazhabon NG, Morozov VG, Pinelis IS","Farmakologiia i toksikologiia",{"id":2421,"title":2422,"authors":2423,"journal":2424,"year":2425,"citationType":167},1908,"[Thymalin in the treatment of patients with erysipelas].","Pateiuk VG, Budazhabon GB, Kuznik BI, Morozov VG, Sergeeva EI","Klinicheskaia meditsina",1987,{"id":2427,"title":2428,"authors":2429,"journal":2430,"year":260,"citationType":167},1909,"[Comparative study of immunomodulatory activity of peptides, tinrostim and thymalin].","Kuznetsova TA, Besednova NN, Zaporozhets TS, Smolina TP, Kazha AK, Ivanushko LA","Antibiotiki i khimioterapiia = Antibiotics and chemoterapy [sic]",{"id":2432,"title":2433,"authors":2434,"journal":2435,"year":710,"citationType":167},1910,"[The immunomodulating and metabolic actions of thymalin in an experimental herpetic infection].","Chukhlovina ML, Tsinzerling VA, Zalkind LG, Polushkina LI, Nilova LG, Mazing IuA, Kuz'min VO","Zhurnal mikrobiologii, epidemiologii i immunobiologii",{"id":2437,"title":2438,"authors":2439,"journal":2440,"year":1372,"citationType":167},1911,"[Thymalin in the combined treatment of patients with chronic lympholeukemia].","Babenko TF, Antonenko VT, SkuratovskiUi MF","Vrachebnoe delo",{"id":2442,"title":2443,"authors":2444,"journal":2445,"year":1372,"citationType":167},1912,"[Structural and cytochemical changes in cerebral cortical neurons of the offspring of neurosensitized female rats after prenatal administration of thymalin].","Kazakova PB, Konokotina GF","Zhurnal nevropatologii i psikhiatrii imeni S.S. Korsakova (Moscow, Russia : 1952)",{"id":2447,"title":2448,"authors":2449,"journal":2450,"year":203,"citationType":167},1913,"[Comparative study of the effects of thymalin and vitamin E on certain indices for local pulmonary protection in rheumatoid arthritis].","Musaev MU","Likars'ka sprava",{"id":2452,"title":2453,"authors":2454,"journal":2435,"year":1396,"citationType":167},1914,"[The effect of thymalin on the development of sensitization with a soluble microbial antigen and on the phenotypic composition of lymphocyte subpopulations in the organs of immunity].","Sukhodoeva GS, Shamsutdinova GS, Dobritsa VP, Ospanova EN, Lukpanova ShZ",{"id":2456,"title":2457,"authors":2458,"journal":2459,"year":1354,"citationType":167},1915,"[Use of thymalin in the complex treatment of patients with cancer of the uterus].","Bakhidze EV, Bokhman IaV, Khavinson VKh, Morozov VG","Voprosy onkologii",{"id":2461,"title":2462,"authors":2463,"journal":2464,"year":723,"citationType":167},1916,"[Effect of thymalin and alpha-tocopherol on the morphofunctional condition of the neuroendocrine system during early stages of atherogenesis].","Pozdniakov OM, Kobozeva LP, Michunskaia AB, Khabarina IIu, Klimenko ED","Biulleten' eksperimental'noi biologii i meditsiny",{"id":2466,"title":2467,"authors":2468,"journal":2469,"year":249,"citationType":167},1917,"[Effect of a levopromazine-thymalin combination on the development of toxic edema and swelling in the brain].","Platonov IA, Vonogel' VG, Andreeva TA","Eksperimental'naia i klinicheskaia farmakologiia",{"id":2471,"title":2472,"authors":2473,"journal":2424,"year":774,"citationType":167},1918,"[Use of thymalin in a patient with immunologic deficiency state after thymectomy].","Abdulkadyrov KM, Shcherbakova EG, Khavinson VKh, Morozov VG, Gerbut GB",{"id":2475,"title":2476,"authors":2477,"journal":2478,"year":1360,"citationType":167},1919,"[Colony-forming units of the bone marrow and spleen of immunodeficient mice after stimulation of the cells with thymalin].","Val'kovich EI, Popov BV, Rakovshchik AL","Arkhiv anatomii, gistologii i embriologii",{"id":2480,"title":2481,"authors":2482,"journal":2483,"year":1372,"citationType":167},1920,"[Effect of thymalin on immunologic reactivity of patients with non-specific lung diseases].","Dovnar TE, Mikhaĭlova NA, Khavinson VKh","Terapevticheskii arkhiv",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":2486,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":2487},4,"2026-01-05T22:12:10.767442","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/thymalin.webp","0.9","C33H54N12O15","3085284","MAEYQNIFSQVQVRGPADLGMTEDVNLANRSGVGPFSTLLGWFGNAQLGPIYLGSLGVLSLFSGLMWFFTIGIWFWYQAGWNPAVFLRDLFFFSLEPPAPEYGLSFAAPLKEGGLWLIASFFMFVAVWSWWGRTYLRAQALGMGKHTAWAFLSAIWLWMVLGFIRPILMGSWSEAVPYGIFSHLDWTNNFSLVHGNLFYNPFHGLSIAFLYGSALLFAMHGATILAVSRFGGERELEQIADRGTAAERAALFWRWTMGFNATMEGIHRWAIWMAVLVTLTGGIGILLSGTVVDNWYVWGQNHGMAPLN","Variable (polypeptide mixture)","IM","63958-90-7","C[C@@H](C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCCN)C(=O)N[C@@H](CO)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCC(=O)N)C(=O)NCC(=O)NCC(=O)N[C@@H](CO)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(=O)N)C(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@@H]1CCC(=O)N1",[2287,2498,2499,2500],"thymus peptide preparation","thymus bioregulator peptide","thymalin (polypeptide extract of calf thymus)",[2502,2503,2504,2505],"Immune modulation and immunosenescence","Secondary immunodeficiencies","COVID-19 immune dysregulation","Anti-aging / bioregulator research",{"human":2507,"animal":2508,"inVitro":2509,"uncertain":2510},"Thymalin has been studied in Russian clinical research as an immunomodulator, including meta-analyses of its immunocorrective activity and a 2021 study reporting improved immune status in older patients with severe COVID-19. Published studies are mostly small and from the originating research program.","Animal studies from the Khavinson laboratory report that thymus peptide preparations restore age-related declines in immune function and extend lifespan in rodents.","Laboratory studies show thymic peptide preparations modulate lymphocyte maturation and cytokine production in immune cell cultures.","Independent Western replication is limited; the preparation is a heterogeneous polypeptide extract, regulatory approval is mainly in Russia, and claims of human lifespan extension are not supported by large trials.",[2512,2516,2519],{"finding":2513,"source":2514,"year":465,"link":2515,"evidenceLevel":46},"In older patients with severe COVID-19, thymalin treatment was associated with regulation of immune status markers compared with standard care.","Clinical study (Advances in Gerontology)","https://doi.org/10.1134/S2079057021040068",{"finding":2517,"source":2518,"year":23,"link":23,"evidenceLevel":46},"A meta-analysis of the immunomodulating activity of thymalin across Russian clinical studies reported immunocorrective effects in conditions with secondary immunodeficiency.","Meta-analysis of clinical studies (Russian literature)",{"finding":2520,"source":2521,"year":2522,"link":2523,"evidenceLevel":46},"A comparative clinical study reported immunocorrective activity of thymalin on lymphocyte subpopulations in patients with duodenal ulcer.","Comparative clinical study (PubMed-indexed)",1998,"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9695565/","The evidence base is dominated by the Khavinson program and Russian-language studies with small samples and limited methodological reporting; no large international trials exist, the preparation is not FDA approved, and standardization of the extract is difficult.","Thymalin is a polypeptide extract of calf thymus developed as an immunomodulator in Russia, typically given by subcutaneous or intramuscular injection in short courses. As a heterogeneous biological extract it has no single defined half-life, and published pharmacokinetic data are minimal.",[2527,2530,2533],{"question":2528,"answer":2529},"Is thymalin FDA approved?","No - it is a Russian-developed immunomodulator not approved by the FDA; its use is largely confined to Russia and some neighboring countries.",{"question":2531,"answer":2532},"What is thymalin used for?","In Russian practice it is used to restore immune function in secondary immunodeficiencies and age-related immune decline, and it has been studied in older COVID-19 patients.",{"question":2534,"answer":2535},"Is the anti-aging evidence strong?","Lifespan and immune-restoration claims come mainly from the Khavinson laboratory's animal studies and small clinical reports; large independent human trials are lacking.",{"id":2537,"name":2538,"slug":2539,"description":2540,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":15,"views":2541,"shortDescription":2542,"researchStatus":2543,"peptideBenefits":2544,"benefits":2580,"peptideSideEffects":2593,"sideEffects":2624,"dosage":2634,"mechanism":2635,"safetyNote":2636,"athleteWarning":149,"chemicalMakeup":2637,"citations":2638,"research":2921,"statsCache":2922,"imageUrl":2924,"molecularWeight":2925,"molecularFormula":2926,"drugbankId":2927,"pubchemId":2928,"sequence":2929,"halfLife":2228,"administrationRoute":540,"casNumber":2930,"smiles":2931,"totalMentions":532,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"protocols":2932,"aliases":2943,"researchAreas":2949,"evidence":2956,"keyStudies":2961,"limitations":2974,"pharmacology":2975,"faqs":2976,"lastReviewed":359},38,"Thymosin Alpha-1","thymosin-alpha-1","Thymosin Alpha-1 (Tα1) is a naturally occurring 28-amino acid peptide originally isolated from thymic tissue that plays a central role in immune system function and maturation. The synthetic version (Zadaxin) is approved in over 35 countries for treatment of hepatitis B, hepatitis C, and as an immune adjuvant in cancer therapy and vaccination. Research demonstrates Tα1 enhances T-cell differentiation and function, augments natural killer cell activity, promotes dendritic cell maturation, and modulates cytokine production. The peptide restores immune function in immunocompromised states and has shown efficacy as an adjunct therapy in various cancers and chronic infections. Studies indicate potential benefits for sepsis, immunodeficiency, and age-related immune decline. Tα1 acts through Toll-like receptors and enhances both innate and adaptive immune responses without overstimulation. Clinical applications include improving response to vaccines in immunocompromised patients and supporting immune reconstitution. The peptide is generally well-tolerated with minimal side effects.",14,"Immunomodulating peptide for immune system enhancement","Research compound - Immune modulator",[2545,2548,2551,2554,2557,2560,2563,2566,2568,2571,2574,2577],{"id":2546,"benefit":2547,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},378,"Cellular repair",{"id":2549,"benefit":2550,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},380,"Cancer support",{"id":2552,"benefit":2553,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},382,"Infection resistance",{"id":206,"benefit":2555,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":2556,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},"Hepatitis B: 40.6% HBV DNA clearance vs 9.4% placebo","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11381492/",{"id":211,"benefit":2558,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":2559,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},"Sepsis: Potential benefit in patients ≥60 years","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39814420/",{"id":216,"benefit":2561,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":2562,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},"Cancer Adjuvant: 36% response in melanoma combination","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7922706/",{"id":487,"benefit":2564,"benefitCategory":2565,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},"Hepatitis B: 36.4% ALT normalization, 30% HBV-DNA clearance, 22.8% HBeAg clearance","antiviral",{"id":494,"benefit":2567,"benefitCategory":2565,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},"COVID-19: Reduced mortality (RR 0.59, p=0.02) - meta-analysis",{"id":501,"benefit":2569,"benefitCategory":2570,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},"Approved in 35+ countries","regulatory",{"id":2572,"benefit":2573,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},377,"Immune system modulation",{"id":2575,"benefit":2576,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},379,"Antiviral effects",{"id":2578,"benefit":2579,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},381,"T-cell 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injection site reactions","mild","common",{"id":2600,"sideEffect":2601,"description":23,"severity":2597,"frequency":2602,"source":24,"sourceType":24,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":23,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},618,"Transient liver enzyme elevations (immune response)","uncommon",{"id":2604,"sideEffect":1900,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":23,"source":44,"sourceType":44,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":2556,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},344,{"id":2606,"sideEffect":2607,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":23,"source":44,"sourceType":44,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":2608,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},345,"Liver enzyme fluctuations","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15850471/",{"id":507,"sideEffect":398,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":2610,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":2611,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":2538,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":1888,"management":2612,"doseDependent":15,"needsReview":15},"Most common ADR (HBV trial)","pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15850471/","Monitor LFTs; reflects immune activation",{"id":513,"sideEffect":120,"description":23,"severity":23,"frequency":2614,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":2615,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":2538,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":2616,"doseDependent":15,"needsReview":15},"Similar to placebo (N=1106)","pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39814420/","No specific management",{"id":2618,"sideEffect":2340,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},223,{"id":2620,"sideEffect":2621,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},225,"Mild fatigue",{"id":2623,"sideEffect":986,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},224,[2625,2626,2627,2628,2629,2630,2631,2632,2633],{"id":2595,"sideEffect":2596,"description":23,"severity":2597,"frequency":2598,"source":24,"sourceType":24,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":23,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":2600,"sideEffect":2601,"description":23,"severity":2597,"frequency":2602,"source":24,"sourceType":24,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":23,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":2604,"sideEffect":1900,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":23,"source":44,"sourceType":44,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":2556,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":2606,"sideEffect":2607,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":23,"source":44,"sourceType":44,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":2608,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":507,"sideEffect":398,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":2610,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":2611,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":2538,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":1888,"management":2612,"doseDependent":15,"needsReview":15},{"id":513,"sideEffect":120,"description":23,"severity":23,"frequency":2614,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":2615,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":2538,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":2616,"doseDependent":15,"needsReview":15},{"id":2618,"sideEffect":2340,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":2620,"sideEffect":2621,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":2623,"sideEffect":986,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"1.6 mg 2x/week","Immune system modulation and cellular repair","Used clinically in some countries. Research compound in others.","28-amino acid peptide, acetylated N-terminus",[2639,2646,2652,2658,2664,2669,2675,2680,2686,2692,2698,2703,2709,2714,2719,2725,2731,2737,2742,2747,2753,2758,2763,2768,2774,2779,2784,2789,2794,2800,2806,2811,2817,2823,2829,2834,2839,2843,2849,2855,2861,2867,2873,2878,2884,2890,2896,2901,2906,2911,2917],{"id":2640,"title":2641,"authors":155,"journal":2642,"year":458,"citationType":2643,"doi":2644,"researchPaperId":2645},56,"Thymosin Alpha-1: Safety and Efficacy Review of 11,000+ Subjects","Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy","Meta-analysis","10.1016/j.biopha.2024.116088","pubmed_38308608",{"id":2647,"title":2648,"authors":155,"journal":2649,"year":478,"citationType":158,"doi":2650,"researchPaperId":2651},57,"Thymosin Alpha-1 in Immune Restoration Therapy","Frontiers in Immunology","10.3389/fimmu.2023.1198503","pubmed_37408063",{"id":2653,"title":2654,"authors":2655,"journal":2656,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":2657},1921,"Thymosin α-1 Reverses M2 Polarization of Tumor-Associated Macrophages during Efferocytosis.","Wei YT, Wang XR, Yan C, Huang F, Zhang Y, Liu X, Wen ZF, Sun XT, Zhang Y, Chen YQ, Gao R, Pan N, Wang LX","Cancer research","10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-21-4260",{"id":2659,"title":2660,"authors":2661,"journal":2662,"year":203,"citationType":167,"doi":2663},1922,"Thymosin alpha-1.","Ancell CD, Phipps J, Young L","American journal of health-system pharmacy : AJHP : official journal of the American Society of Health-System Pharmacists","10.1093/ajhp/58.10.886",{"id":2665,"title":2666,"authors":2667,"journal":516,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":2668},1923,"Aging and Thymosin Alpha-1.","Simonova MA, Ivanov I, Shoshina NS, Komyakova AM, Makarov DA, Baranovskii DS, Klabukov ID, Telepenina KP, Atiakshin DA, Shegay PV, Kaprin AD, Stepanenko VN","10.3390/ijms262311470",{"id":2670,"title":2671,"authors":2672,"journal":2673,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":2674},1924,"Thymosin alpha 1 treatment for patients with sepsis.","Pei F, Guan X, Wu J","Expert opinion on biological therapy","10.1080/14712598.2018.1484104",{"id":2676,"title":2677,"authors":2678,"journal":2673,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":2679},1925,"Serum thymosin alpha 1 levels in normal and pathological conditions.","Pica F, Gaziano R, Casalinuovo IA, Moroni G, Buè C, Limongi D, D'Agostini C, Tomino C, Perricone R, Palamara AT, Sinibaldi Vallebona P, Garaci E","10.1080/14712598.2018.1474197",{"id":2681,"title":2682,"authors":2683,"journal":2684,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":2685},1926,"Thymosin Alpha 1 Plus Routine Treatment for the Acute Exacerbation of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.","Cao A, Feng F, Zhou X","Journal of the College of Physicians and Surgeons--Pakistan : JCPSP","10.29271/jcpsp.2024.12.1497",{"id":2687,"title":2688,"authors":2689,"journal":2690,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":2691},1927,"Thymosin alpha 1 and HIV-1: recent advances and future perspectives.","Matteucci C, Grelli S, Balestrieri E, Minutolo A, Argaw-Denboba A, Macchi B, Sinibaldi-Vallebona P, Perno CF, Mastino A, Garaci E","Future microbiology","10.2217/fmb-2016-0125",{"id":2693,"title":2694,"authors":2695,"journal":2696,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":2697},1928,"Thymosin α-1 in cancer therapy: Immunoregulation and potential applications.","Wei Y, Zhang Y, Li P, Yan C, Wang L","International immunopharmacology","10.1016/j.intimp.2023.109744",{"id":2699,"title":2700,"authors":2701,"journal":2673,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":2702},1929,"Thymosin alpha-1 treatment in chronic hepatitis B.","Wu X, Jia J, You H","10.1517/14712598.2015.1007948",{"id":2704,"title":2705,"authors":2706,"journal":2707,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":2708},1930,"The efficacy of thymosin alpha-1 therapy in moderate to critical COVID-19 patients: a systematic review, meta-analysis, and meta-regression.","Soeroto AY, Suryadinata H, Yanto TA, Hariyanto TI","Inflammopharmacology","10.1007/s10787-023-01354-2",{"id":2710,"title":2711,"authors":2712,"journal":1469,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":2713},1931,"Thymosin alpha 1 alleviates inflammation and prevents infection in patients with severe acute pancreatitis through immune regulation: a systematic review and meta-analysis.","Tian Y, Yao J, Ma Y, Zhang P, Zhou X, Xie W, Tang W","10.3389/fimmu.2025.1571456",{"id":2715,"title":2716,"authors":2717,"journal":2673,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":2718},1932,"Historical review of thymosin α 1 in infectious diseases.","Camerini R, Garaci E","10.1517/14712598.2015.1033393",{"id":2720,"title":2721,"authors":2722,"journal":2723,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":2724},1933,"Immune Modulation with Thymosin Alpha 1 Treatment.","King R, Tuthill C","Vitamins and hormones","10.1016/bs.vh.2016.04.003",{"id":2726,"title":2727,"authors":2728,"journal":2729,"year":710,"citationType":167,"doi":2730},1934,"Thymosin alpha-1 as adjunct for conventional therapy of malignant tumors: a review.","Bepler G","Cancer investigation","10.3109/07357909409021409",{"id":2732,"title":2733,"authors":2734,"journal":2735,"year":1105,"citationType":167,"doi":2736},1935,"Thymosin alpha 1: past clinical experience and future promise.","Tuthill C, Rios I, McBeath R","Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences","10.1111/j.1749-6632.2010.05482.x",{"id":2738,"title":2739,"authors":2740,"journal":2696,"year":173,"citationType":167,"doi":2741},1936,"Thymosin alpha(1) in combination with cytokines and chemotherapy for the treatment of cancer.","Garaci E, Pica F, Sinibaldi-Vallebona P, Pierimarchi P, Mastino A, Matteucci C, Rasi G","10.1016/S1567-5769(03)00053-5",{"id":2743,"title":2744,"authors":2745,"journal":2735,"year":1105,"citationType":167,"doi":2746},1937,"Thymosin alpha 1 for treatment of hepatitis C virus: promise and proof.","Sherman KE","10.1111/j.1749-6632.2010.05460.x",{"id":2748,"title":2749,"authors":2750,"journal":2751,"year":836,"citationType":167,"doi":2752},1938,"Thymosin alpha 1 in the treatment of cancer: from basic research to clinical application.","Garaci E, Pica F, Rasi G, Favalli C","International journal of immunopharmacology","10.1016/s0192-0561(00)00075-8",{"id":2754,"title":2755,"authors":2756,"journal":1006,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":2757},1939,"Bioactive Thymosin Alpha-1 Does Not Influence F508del-CFTR Maturation and Activity.","Armirotti A, Tomati V, Matthes E, Veit G, Cholon DM, Phuan PW, Braccia C, Guidone D, Gentzsch M, Lukacs GL, Verkman AS, Galietta LJV, Hanrahan JW, Pedemonte N","10.1038/s41598-019-46639-1",{"id":2759,"title":2760,"authors":2761,"journal":2762,"year":249,"citationType":167},1940,"Thymalfasin (thymosin-alpha 1) therapy in patients with chronic hepatitis B.","Liaw YF","Journal of gastroenterology and hepatology",{"id":2764,"title":2765,"authors":2766,"journal":2729,"year":710,"citationType":167,"doi":2767},1941,"Clinical applications of thymosin alpha-1.","Goldstein AL","10.3109/07357909409021415",{"id":2769,"title":2770,"authors":2771,"journal":2772,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":2773},1942,"[Thymosin alpha 1 for the adjuvant treatment of coronavirus disease 2019: a retrospective cohort study].","Wang T, Lin Q, Xie Y, Yang L, Cao S, Dong H, Du J, Wang R","Zhonghua wei zhong bing ji jiu yi xue","10.3760/cma.j.cn121430-20211013-01478",{"id":2775,"title":2776,"authors":2777,"journal":2696,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":2778},1943,"Thymosin alpha 1 - Reimagine its broader applications in the immuno-oncology era.","Mao L","10.1016/j.intimp.2023.109952",{"id":2780,"title":2781,"authors":2782,"journal":2696,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":2783},1944,"Thymosin alpha 1 restores the immune homeostasis in lymphocytes during Post-Acute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 infection.","Minutolo A, Petrone V, Fanelli M, Maracchioni C, Giudice M, Teti E, Coppola L, Sorace C, Iannetta M, Tony Miele M, Bernardini S, Mastino A, Sinibaldi Vallebona P, Balestrieri E, Andreoni M, Sarmati L, Grelli S, Garaci E, Matteucci C","10.1016/j.intimp.2023.110055",{"id":2785,"title":2786,"authors":2787,"journal":2788,"year":458,"citationType":167},1945,"Comprehensive Review of the Safety and Efficacy of Thymosin Alpha 1 in Human Clinical Trials.","Dinetz E, Lee E","Alternative therapies in health and medicine",{"id":2790,"title":2791,"authors":2792,"journal":2723,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":2793},1946,"Mechanism of Action of Thymosinα1: Does It Interact with Membrane by Recognition of Exposed Phosphatidylserine on Cell Surface? A Structural Approach.","Nepravishta R, Mandaliti W, Vallebona PS, Pica F, Garaci E, Paci M","10.1016/bs.vh.2016.04.002",{"id":2795,"title":2796,"authors":2797,"journal":2798,"year":290,"citationType":167,"doi":2799},1947,"Thymosinalpha1 stimulates cell proliferation by activating ERK1/2, JNK, and increasing cytokine secretion in human pancreatic cancer cells.","Li M, Feurino LW, Li F, Wang H, Zhai Q, Fisher WE, Chen C, Yao Q","Cancer letters","10.1016/j.canlet.2006.05.019",{"id":2801,"title":2802,"authors":2803,"journal":2804,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":2805},1948,"Clinical effect of Xuebijing combined with thymosinα1 on patients with severe pneumonia complicated with sepsis and its effect on serum inflammatory factors.","Chen Y, Zhou L, Wang J, Gu T, Li S","Cellular and molecular biology (Noisy-le-Grand, France)","10.14715/cmb/2021.67.6.30",{"id":2807,"title":2808,"authors":2809,"journal":2798,"year":836,"citationType":167,"doi":2810},1949,"Thymosinalpha1 is chemopreventive for lung adenoma formation in A/J mice.","Moody TW, Leyton J, Zia F, Tuthill C, Badamchian M, Goldstein AL","10.1016/s0304-3835(00)00405-5",{"id":2812,"title":2813,"authors":2814,"journal":2815,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":2816},1950,"Hypofractionated radiotherapy combined with a PD-1 inhibitor, granulocyte macrophage-colony stimulating factor, and thymosin-α1 in advanced metastatic solid tumors: a multicenter Phase II clinical trial.","Yu J, Yin L, Guo W, Wang Q, Liu J, Zhang L, Ye H, Xia J, Xia Y, Wu J, Wang W, Yang Y, Zong D, He X, Wang L, Jiang H","Cancer immunology, immunotherapy : CII","10.1007/s00262-024-03934-9",{"id":2818,"title":2819,"authors":2820,"journal":2821,"year":1152,"citationType":167,"doi":2822},1951,"Immunomodulatory adjuvant therapy in severe community-acquired pneumonia.","Morton B, Pennington SH, Gordon SB","Expert review of respiratory medicine","10.1586/17476348.2014.927736",{"id":2824,"title":2825,"authors":2826,"journal":2827,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":2828},1952,"Interferon-α and thymosin-α1 plus tislelizumab enhance CD8(+) T cell cytotoxicity toward pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma.","Deng S, Deng R, Wang J, Hu Q, Xu B, Zheng J, Peng M, Tan W, Zhu H, Zuo C","iScience","10.1016/j.isci.2025.113053",{"id":2830,"title":2831,"authors":2832,"journal":2798,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":2833},1953,"Thymosin alpha1 enhanced cytotoxicity of iNKT cells against colon cancer via upregulating CD1d expression.","Ni C, Wu P, Wu X, Zhang T, Zhang T, Wang Z, Zhang S, Qiu F, Huang J","10.1016/j.canlet.2014.10.002",{"id":2835,"title":2836,"authors":2761,"journal":2837,"year":166,"citationType":167,"doi":2838},1954,"Therapy of chronic hepatitis B: current challenges and opportunities.","Journal of viral hepatitis","10.1046/j.1365-2893.2002.00388.x",{"id":2840,"title":2841,"authors":2761,"journal":2762,"year":166,"citationType":167,"doi":2842},1955,"Management of patients with chronic hepatitis B.","10.1046/j.1440-1746.2002.02736.x",{"id":2844,"title":2845,"authors":2846,"journal":2847,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":2848},1956,"Thymosins in multiple sclerosis and its experimental models: moving from basic to clinical application.","Severa M, Zhang J, Giacomini E, Rizzo F, Etna MP, Cruciani M, Garaci E, Chopp M, Coccia EM","Multiple sclerosis and related disorders","10.1016/j.msard.2018.09.035",{"id":2850,"title":2851,"authors":2852,"journal":2853,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":2854},1957,"The use of alpha 1 thymosin as an immunomodulator of the response against SARS-Cov2.","Espinar-Buitrago MS, Tarancon-Diez L, Vazquez-Alejo E, Magro-Lopez E, Genebat M, Romero-Candau F, Leal M, Muñoz-Fernandez MA","Immunity & ageing : I & A","10.1186/s12979-023-00351-x",{"id":2856,"title":2857,"authors":2858,"journal":2859,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":2860},1958,"Thymosin-α1 binds with ACE and downregulates the expression of ACE2 in human respiratory epithelia.","Zhang YH, Wang WY, Pang XC, Wang Z, Wang CZ, Zhou H, Zheng B, Cui YM","Frontiers in bioscience (Landmark edition)","10.31083/j.fbl2702048",{"id":2862,"title":2863,"authors":2864,"journal":2865,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":2866},1959,"A Pilot Trial of Thymalfasin (Thymosin-α-1) to Treat Hospitalized Patients With Hypoxemia and Lymphocytopenia Due to Coronavirus Disease 2019 Infection.","Shehadeh F, Benitez G, Mylona EK, Tran QL, Tsikala-Vafea M, Atalla E, Kaczynski M, Mylonakis E","The Journal of infectious diseases","10.1093/infdis/jiac362",{"id":2868,"title":2869,"authors":2870,"journal":2871,"year":1403,"citationType":167,"doi":2872},1960,"A psycho-behavioral model of genital herpes recurrence.","Hoon EF, Hoon PW, Rand KH, Johnson J, Hall NR, Edwards NB","Journal of psychosomatic research","10.1016/0022-3999(91)90004-8",{"id":2874,"title":2875,"authors":2876,"journal":2696,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":2877},1961,"Immune modulation via dendritic cells by the effect of Thymosin-alpha-1 on immune synapse in HCMV infection.","Espinar-Buitrago MS, Vazquez-Alejo E, Magro-Lopez E, Tarancon-Diez L, Leal M, Muñoz-Fernandez MA","10.1016/j.intimp.2023.111103",{"id":2879,"title":2880,"authors":2881,"journal":2882,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":2883},1962,"Thymosin-α1 expands deficient IL-10-producing regulatory B cell subsets in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis patients.","Giacomini E, Rizzo F, Etna MP, Cruciani M, Mechelli R, Buscarinu MC, Pica F, D'Agostini C, Salvetti M, Coccia EM, Severa M","Multiple sclerosis (Houndmills, Basingstoke, England)","10.1177/1352458517695892",{"id":2885,"title":2886,"authors":2887,"journal":2888,"year":243,"citationType":167,"doi":2889},1963,"Thymalfasin for the treatment of chronic hepatitis C infection.","Rustgi VK","Expert review of anti-infective therapy","10.1586/14787210.3.6.885",{"id":2891,"title":2892,"authors":2893,"journal":2894,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":2895},1964,"A biotherapy based on PSCs-in-3D spheroid-ameliorated biologics depletes in vivo cancer-sustaining stem cells.","Zhang W, Yang H, Zhang Y, Lu Y, Zhou T, Li M, Wen Y, Lin X, Xiang R, Chen X","Oncotarget","10.18632/oncotarget.5691",{"id":2897,"title":2898,"authors":2899,"journal":2696,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":2900},1965,"Interaction of cholera toxin B subunit with T and B lymphocytes.","Navolotskaya EV, Sadovnikov VB, Zinchenko DV, Lipkin VM, Zav'yalov VP","10.1016/j.intimp.2017.07.011",{"id":2902,"title":2903,"authors":2904,"journal":1469,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":2905},1966,"Factors associated with the humoral response after three doses of COVID-19 vaccination in kidney transplant recipients.","Bulnes-Ramos Á, Pozo-Balado MM, Olivas-Martínez I, Garrido-Rodríguez V, Bernal-Blanco G, Suárez-Benjumea A, Álvarez-Ríos AI, Lozano C, González-Corvillo C, Suñer-Poblet M, González-Roncero FM, Sánchez B, Maldonado-Calzado I, Lara-Ruiz JM, Gonzalez-Escribano MF, Pacheco YM","10.3389/fimmu.2023.1099079",{"id":2907,"title":2908,"authors":2909,"journal":2859,"year":1122,"citationType":167,"doi":2910},1967,"Thymosin-alpha1 promotes the apoptosis of regulatory T cells and survival rate in septic mice.","Wan J, Shan Y, Shan H, Li G, Wang T, Guan J, Liu X, Chen D, Li W, Lin Z","10.2741/3894",{"id":2912,"title":2913,"authors":2914,"journal":2915,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":2916},1968,"Design of a substrate-tailored peptiligase variant for the efficient synthesis of thymosin-α(1).","Schmidt M, Toplak A, Rozeboom HJ, Wijma HJ, Quaedflieg PJLM, van Maarseveen JH, Janssen DB, Nuijens T","Organic & biomolecular chemistry","10.1039/c7ob02812a",{"id":743,"title":2918,"authors":2919,"journal":1527,"year":2522,"citationType":167,"doi":2920},"A role of the thymus and thymosin-alpha1 in brain NGF levels and NGF receptor expression.","Turrini P, Tirassa P, Vigneti E, Aloe L","10.1016/S0165-5728(97)00189-6",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":532,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":2923},"2026-01-05T22:12:16.703049","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/thymosin-alpha-1.webp","3108.28","C129H215N33O55","DB06293","16130571","SDAAVDTSSEITTKDLKEKKEVVEEAEN","62304-98-7","CC[C@H](C)[C@@H](C(=O)N[C@@H]([C@@H](C)O)C(=O)N[C@@H]([C@@H](C)O)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCCN)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(=O)O)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(C)C)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCCN)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCC(=O)O)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCCN)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCCN)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCC(=O)O)C(=O)N[C@@H](C(C)C)C(=O)N[C@@H](C(C)C)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCC(=O)O)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCC(=O)O)C(=O)N[C@@H](C)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCC(=O)O)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(=O)N)C(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@H](CCC(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@H](CO)NC(=O)[C@H](CO)NC(=O)[C@H]([C@@H](C)O)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@H](C(C)C)NC(=O)[C@H](C)NC(=O)[C@H](C)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@H](CO)NC(=O)C",[2933,2936,2939,2941],{"name":2934,"dose":2935,"frequency":1589,"route":555},"Standard immune support","1.6mg",{"name":2937,"dose":2935,"frequency":2938,"route":1595},"Acute conditions (sepsis)","2x daily × 5 days, then daily",{"name":2940,"dose":2935,"frequency":1589,"route":555},"Cancer/hepatitis support",{"name":2942,"dose":2935,"frequency":1589,"route":555},"Maintenance/prevention",[2944,2945,2946,2947,2948],"Thymalfasin","Tα1","Zadaxin","Talpha-1","Thymosin alpha 1",[2950,2951,2952,2953,2954,2955],"Immune modulation","Sepsis / severe infection","Hepatitis B and C","Hepatocellular carcinoma adjuvant therapy","Cancer immunotherapy adjunct","Vaccine adjuvant",{"human":2957,"animal":2958,"inVitro":2959,"uncertain":2960},"Thymosin alpha-1 (thymalfasin; Zadaxin) is approved in more than 30 countries (not the US) for hepatitis B/C and as an immune adjuvant. The multicenter ETASS randomized controlled trial in 361 severe sepsis patients found 28-day mortality of 26.0% with Tα1 vs 35.0% in controls (relative risk 0.74, 95% CI 0.54-1.02; log-rank P=0.049) with improved monocyte HLA-DR expression. A propensity-score-matched analysis of 468 patients found adjuvant Tα1 improved recurrence-free and overall survival after curative resection of HBV-related hepatocellular carcinoma.","Tα1 enhances T-cell differentiation/function, NK activity, dendritic cell maturation and cytokine production in animal and immune models, restoring immune function in immunocompromised states.","Cell studies show Tα1 signals through Toll-like receptors (e.g., TLR9) and modulates both innate and adaptive immune responses without overstimulation.","US FDA approval is absent (Zadaxin never received US approval); evidence for sepsis and HCC is from single trials/observational analyses with mixed statistical significance, and benefits in healthy users (immune 'boosting') are not clinically established.",[2962,2966,2970],{"finding":2963,"source":2964,"year":260,"link":2965,"evidenceLevel":46},"ETASS trial (361 severe sepsis patients): 28-day mortality was 26.0% with thymosin alpha-1 vs 35.0% in controls (RR 0.74; 95% CI 0.54-1.02; log-rank P=0.049), with significantly greater improvement in monocyte HLA-DR on days 3 and 7 and no serious drug-related adverse events.","Multicenter, single-blind, randomized controlled trial (Critical Care)","https://doi.org/10.1186/cc11932",{"finding":2967,"source":2968,"year":465,"link":2969,"evidenceLevel":46},"In 468 patients with solitary HBV-related HCC after curative resection, propensity-score-matched analysis found Tα1 adjuvant therapy was associated with improved recurrence-free survival and overall survival (HR 0.381 and 0.308, respectively, on multivariate analysis).","Propensity score matching analysis (Medicine)","https://doi.org/10.1097/MD.0000000000025749",{"finding":2971,"source":2972,"year":736,"link":2973,"evidenceLevel":46},"Pharmacokinetics in healthy volunteers: thymosin alpha-1 is well absorbed after subcutaneous injection (tmax 1-2 h), with no accumulation between single- and 5-day multiple dosing.","Pharmacokinetic study in healthy volunteers (Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther)","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10027483/","The ETASS sepsis trial was single-blind and its primary analysis showed only marginal significance (P=0.062 non-stratified; log-rank P=0.049); HCC data are retrospective/PSM analyses, not randomized. Thymosin alpha-1 is not FDA approved in the US despite approval in many other countries, and evidence for use in healthy individuals is lacking.","Thymosin alpha-1 is a 28-amino-acid peptide (synthetic thymalfasin). It is given by subcutaneous injection; in the healthy-volunteer PK study, tmax was 1-2 hours after SC dosing with no accumulation on repeated daily dosing. In sepsis trials, dosing was ~1.6 mg SC twice daily for 5 days (per ETASS design). It enhances T-cell and dendritic-cell function via Toll-like receptor signaling.",[2977,2980,2983],{"question":2978,"answer":2979},"Is thymosin alpha-1 FDA approved?","No. Thymalfasin (Zadaxin) is approved in more than 30 countries for hepatitis B/C and as an immune adjuvant, but it is not FDA approved in the US.",{"question":2981,"answer":2982},"What is the strongest evidence for thymosin alpha-1?","The ETASS randomized trial in severe sepsis (28-day mortality 26% vs 35%, RR 0.74) and adjuvant-use analyses in hepatitis B-related hepatocellular carcinoma, plus decades of hepatitis B/C use in approved countries.",{"question":2984,"answer":2985},"How is thymosin alpha-1 administered?","By subcutaneous injection; in the ETASS sepsis trial the regimen was approximately 1.6 mg twice daily for 5 days, and it is typically dosed 1.6 mg twice weekly in many clinical protocols.",{"id":16,"name":2987,"slug":2988,"description":2989,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":28,"views":2990,"shortDescription":2991,"researchStatus":2992,"peptideBenefits":2993,"benefits":3017,"peptideSideEffects":3029,"sideEffects":3045,"dosage":3052,"mechanism":3053,"safetyNote":148,"athleteWarning":149,"chemicalMakeup":3054,"citations":3055,"research":3191,"statsCache":3192,"imageUrl":3194,"molecularWeight":3195,"molecularFormula":2490,"drugbankId":3196,"pubchemId":3197,"sequence":3198,"halfLife":3199,"casNumber":3200,"smiles":3201,"totalMentions":532,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"protocols":3202,"aliases":3216,"researchAreas":3221,"evidence":3226,"keyStudies":3231,"limitations":3240,"pharmacology":3241,"faqs":3242,"lastReviewed":359},"Thymulin","thymulin","Thymulin (Facteur Thymique Sérique, FTS) is a nonapeptide hormone secreted by thymic epithelial cells that requires zinc binding for biological activity. The active zinc-thymulin complex is essential for T-lymphocyte differentiation, immune system maturation, and maintenance of immune homeostasis. As thymic function declines with age, thymulin production decreases substantially, contributing to immunosenescence—the gradual deterioration of immune function associated with aging. Research demonstrates thymulin influences T-cell development, cytokine networks, and the balance between different T-cell subsets. The peptide also exhibits neuroendocrine effects through interactions with the hypothalamic-pituitary axis. Studies suggest potential therapeutic applications for restoring immune function in elderly subjects, supporting immune reconstitution, and modulating autoimmune responses. Thymulin's anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties have been documented independent of its immunomodulatory effects. The absolute requirement for zinc highlights the importance of zinc status in immune function and the potential for zinc deficiency to impair thymulin activity.",25,"Thymic hormone peptide for immune system maturation","Research compound - Thymic hormone",[2994,2995,2996,2998,3001,3003,3005,3008,3010,3012,3015],{"id":1902,"benefit":78,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":1897,"benefit":2320,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":2997,"benefit":34,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},177,{"id":2999,"benefit":3000,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},178,"Enhanced 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activity",[3046,3047,3048,3049,3050,3051],{"id":3031,"sideEffect":3032,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":3034,"sideEffect":405,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":3036,"sideEffect":112,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":3038,"sideEffect":3039,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":3041,"sideEffect":669,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":3043,"sideEffect":3044,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Research protocols: 1-5mg weekly (Research use only)","Thymic hormone that regulates immune function and supports tissue repair","Nonapeptide pyroGlu-Ala-Lys-Ser-Gln-Gly-Pro-Gly-Ser-NH₂, complexed with zinc",[3056,3061,3066,3071,3076,3080,3084,3088,3094,3100,3106,3111,3117,3123,3128,3133,3138,3144,3150,3155,3161,3167,3173,3179,3185],{"id":451,"title":3057,"authors":3058,"journal":3059,"year":249,"citationType":167,"doi":3060},"Thymulin and the neuroendocrine system.","Goya RG, Brown OA, Pléau JM, Dardenne M","Peptides","10.1016/j.peptides.2003.11.002",{"id":465,"title":3062,"authors":3063,"journal":3064,"year":1372,"citationType":167,"doi":3065},"Thymulin, a zinc-dependent hormone.","Bach JF, Dardenne M","Medical oncology and tumor pharmacotherapy","10.1007/BF02985220",{"id":437,"title":3067,"authors":3068,"journal":3069,"year":1152,"citationType":167,"doi":3070},"Physiology and therapeutic potential of the thymic peptide thymulin.","Reggiani PC, Schwerdt JI, Console GM, Roggero EA, Dardenne M, Goya RG","Current pharmaceutical design","10.2174/1381612820666140130211157",{"id":478,"title":3072,"authors":3073,"journal":2735,"year":3074,"citationType":167,"doi":3075},"Role of thymulin or its analogue as a new analgesic molecule.","Dardenne M, Saade N, Safieh-Garabedian B",2006,"10.1196/annals.1366.006",{"id":458,"title":3077,"authors":3078,"journal":2735,"year":1384,"citationType":167,"doi":3079},"The thymus-neuroendocrine axis: physiology, molecular biology, and therapeutic potential of the thymic peptide thymulin.","Reggiani PC, Morel GR, Cónsole GM, Barbeito CG, Rodriguez SS, Brown OA, Bellini MJ, Pléau JM, Dardenne M, Goya RG","10.1111/j.1749-6632.2008.03964.x",{"id":157,"title":3081,"authors":3082,"journal":2696,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":3083},"Thymulin treatment attenuates inflammatory pain by modulating spinal cellular and molecular signaling pathways.","Nasseri B, Zaringhalam J, Daniali S, Manaheji H, Abbasnejad Z, Nazemian V","10.1016/j.intimp.2019.02.042",{"id":1624,"title":3085,"authors":3086,"journal":2218,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":3087},"Targeting inflammatory components in neuropathic pain: The analgesic effect of thymulin related peptide.","Safieh-Garabedian B, Nomikos M, Saadé N","10.1016/j.neulet.2018.11.041",{"id":3089,"title":3090,"authors":3091,"journal":3092,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":3093},2027,"Thymulin and peroxiredoxin 6 have protective effects against streptozotocin-induced type 1 diabetes in mice.","Novoselova EG, Glushkova OV, Lunin SM, Khrenov MO, Parfenyuk SB, Novoselova TV, Sharapov MG, Gordeeva AE, Novoselov VI, Fesenko EE","International journal of immunopathology and pharmacology","10.1177/20587384211005645",{"id":3095,"title":3096,"authors":3097,"journal":3098,"year":920,"citationType":167,"doi":3099},2028,"Thymulin and its role in immunomodulation.","Safieh-Garabedian B, Kendall MD, Khamashta MA, Hughes GR","Journal of autoimmunity","10.1016/0896-8411(92)90152-g",{"id":3101,"title":3102,"authors":3103,"journal":3104,"year":1354,"citationType":167,"doi":3105},2029,"Thymulin.","Pleau JM, Gastinel LN, Bach JF","Methods in enzymology","10.1016/s0076-6879(85)16021-0",{"id":3107,"title":3108,"authors":3109,"journal":1139,"year":1105,"citationType":167,"doi":3110},2030,"Immunomodulatory role of thymulin in lung diseases.","Santos M, Henriques-Coelho T, Leite-Moreira A","10.1517/14728220903512991",{"id":3112,"title":3113,"authors":3114,"journal":3115,"year":2522,"citationType":167,"doi":3116},2031,"Thymulin stimulates prolactin and thyrotropin release in an age-related manner.","Brown OA, Sosa YE, Bolognani F, Goya RG","Mechanisms of ageing and development","10.1016/s0047-6374(98)00072-4",{"id":3118,"title":3119,"authors":3120,"journal":3121,"year":736,"citationType":167,"doi":3122},2032,"Cytokine-mediated or direct effects of thymulin on the nervous system as assessed by pain-related behavior.","Safieh-Garabedian B, Kanaan SA, Jabbur SJ, Saadé NE","Neuroimmunomodulation","10.1159/000026362",{"id":3124,"title":3125,"authors":3126,"journal":3121,"year":1122,"citationType":167,"doi":3127},2033,"Thymulin-based gene therapy and pituitary function in animal models of aging.","Reggiani PC, Poch B, Cónsole GM, Rimoldi OJ, Schwerdt JI, Tüngler V, Garcia-Bravo MM, Dardenne M, Goya RG","10.1159/000329495",{"id":3129,"title":3130,"authors":3131,"journal":3132,"year":1396,"citationType":167},2034,"Biochemical and biological aspects of the interaction between thymulin and zinc.","Dardenne M, Pléau JM, Savino W, Prasad AS, Bach JF","Progress in clinical and biological research",{"id":3134,"title":3135,"authors":3136,"journal":1990,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":3137},2035,"Thymulin, free or bound to PBCA nanoparticles, protects mice against chronic septic inflammation.","Novoselova EG, Lunin SM, Glushkova OV, Khrenov MO, Parfenyuk SB, Zakharova NM, Fesenko EE","10.1371/journal.pone.0197601",{"id":3139,"title":3140,"authors":3141,"journal":3142,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":3143},2036,"Effects of GnRH immunization on the reproductive axis and thymulin.","Su S, Sun X, Zhou X, Fang F, Li Y","The Journal of endocrinology","10.1530/JOE-14-0720",{"id":3145,"title":3146,"authors":3147,"journal":3148,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":3149},2037,"Nanoparticle-based thymulin gene therapy therapeutically reverses key pathology of experimental allergic asthma.","da Silva AL, de Oliveira GP, Kim N, Cruz FF, Kitoko JZ, Blanco NG, Martini SV, Hanes J, Rocco PRM, Suk JS, Morales MM","Science advances","10.1126/sciadv.aay7973",{"id":3151,"title":3152,"authors":3153,"journal":1139,"year":1196,"citationType":167,"doi":3154},2038,"Targeting neuroinflammation for therapeutic intervention in neurodegenerative pathologies: a role for the peptide analogue of thymulin (PAT).","Safieh-Garabedian B, Mayasi Y, Saadé NE","10.1517/14728222.2012.714773",{"id":3156,"title":3157,"authors":3158,"journal":3159,"year":1354,"citationType":167,"doi":3160},2039,"Thymulin (Zn-facteur thymique serique) activity in anorexia nervosa patients.","Wade S, Bleiberg F, Mossé A, Lubetzki J, Flavigny H, Chapuis P, Roche D, Lemonnier D, Dardenne M","The American journal of clinical nutrition","10.1093/ajcn/42.2.275",{"id":3162,"title":3163,"authors":3164,"journal":3165,"year":166,"citationType":167,"doi":3166},2040,"The effects of thymulin on macrophage responsiveness to interferon-gamma.","Orringer DA, Staeheli P, Marsh JA","Developmental and comparative immunology","10.1016/s0145-305x(01)00052-0",{"id":3168,"title":3169,"authors":3170,"journal":3171,"year":1122,"citationType":167,"doi":3172},2041,"Neonatal thymulin gene therapy in nude mice: Effects on the morphology of the pituitary corticotrope population.","Martines E, Reggiani PC, Schwerdt JI, Goya RG, Cónsole G","Histology and histopathology","10.14670/HH-26.471",{"id":3174,"title":3175,"authors":3176,"journal":3177,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":3178},2042,"Comparison of Thymulin Activity with Other Measures of Marginal Zinc Deficiency.","DiSilvestro RA, Dardenne M, Joseph E","Biological trace element research","10.1007/s12011-020-02159-y",{"id":3180,"title":3181,"authors":3182,"journal":3183,"year":1314,"citationType":167,"doi":3184},2043,"Serum thymulin in human zinc deficiency.","Prasad AS, Meftah S, Abdallah J, Kaplan J, Brewer GJ, Bach JF, Dardenne M","The Journal of clinical investigation","10.1172/JCI113717",{"id":3186,"title":3187,"authors":3188,"journal":3189,"year":229,"citationType":167,"doi":3190},2044,"Thymulin inhibits monocrotaline-induced pulmonary hypertension modulating interleukin-6 expression and suppressing p38 pathway.","Henriques-Coelho T, Oliveira SM, Moura RS, Roncon-Albuquerque R Jr, Neves AL, Santos M, Nogueira-Silva C, La Fuente Carvalho F, Brandão-Nogueira A, Correia-Pinto J, Leite-Moreira AF","Endocrinology","10.1210/en.2008-0018",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":532,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":3193},"2026-01-05T22:12:07.366583","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/thymulin.webp","0.84","DB13928","71300623","MSDAAVDTSSEITTKDLKEKKEVVEEAENGRDAPANGNAENEENGEQEADNEVDEEEEEGGEEEEEEEEGDGEEEDGDEDEEAESATGKRAAEDDEDDDVDTKKQKTDEDD","Minutes to hours (zinc-dependent)","78922-62-0","C[C@@H](C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCCN)C(=O)NC(CO)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCC(=O)N)C(=O)NCC(=O)NCC(=O)N[C@@H](CO)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(=O)N)C(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@@H]1CCC(=O)N1",[3203,3208,3212],{"name":3204,"dose":3205,"frequency":3206,"route":3207},"Animal Research Protocol (Inflammation)","15 μg/100g body weight","Single dose or short course","IP or SubQ",{"name":3209,"dose":3210,"frequency":3211,"route":550},"PAT Analog (Pain Research)","25-50 μg per rat (~100-200 μg/kg)","30 min before inflammatory challenge",{"name":3213,"dose":3214,"frequency":3215,"route":555},"Anecdotal Human Protocol","1-5 mg per injection","Once daily for 5-10 days",[3217,3218,3219,3220],"Serum thymic factor (FTS)","Facteur thymique serique","Zinc-thymulin (Zn-FTS)","Thymulin nonapeptide",[3222,3223,3224,3225],"Immune function and T-cell biology","Thymic involution and aging","Zinc deficiency states","Autoimmune disease (historical trials)",{"human":3227,"animal":3228,"inVitro":3229,"uncertain":3230},"Clinical studies from the 1980s-90s tested thymulin or its synthetic analog nonathymulin in rheumatoid arthritis, with mixed results: two double-blind, placebo-controlled trials found the best response at 5 mg/day (56% clinical improvement vs 17% placebo, p\u003C0.02) but no clear changes in measured immune parameters. Zinc supplementation restored plasma zinc and thymulin activity in patients with Crohn's disease, consistent with thymulin being zinc-dependent. Circulating thymulin declines with age as the thymus involutes.","Animal studies established thymulin as a nonapeptide secreted by thymic epithelial cells that induces T-cell differentiation markers and is biologically inactive without zinc.","Laboratory assays demonstrate thymulin's effects on T-cell maturation markers, with activity requiring the zinc-bound (Zn-FTS) form.","Claims that exogenous thymulin restores immunity, reverses aging, or treats autoimmune disease in humans are not supported by modern large trials; the evidence base is old and small.",[3232,3236],{"finding":3233,"source":3234,"year":2425,"link":3235,"evidenceLevel":46},"Two randomized double-blind, placebo-controlled trials: nonathymulin (a synthetic thymulin analog) at 5 mg/day produced significant clinical improvement in rheumatoid arthritis (56% vs 17% placebo) with minimal adverse effects and no clear immunological changes.","Two double-blind, placebo-controlled trials (Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases)","https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1002191/",{"finding":3237,"source":3238,"year":1396,"link":3239,"evidenceLevel":46},"Zinc supplementation restored plasma concentrations of zinc and thymulin in patients with Crohn's disease.","Clinical study (Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics)","https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2036.1993.tb00098.x","Human evidence is decades old, small, and inconsistent; no modern large trials exist; bioavailability and dosing of exogenous thymulin are not established; zinc status confounds its biological activity.","Thymulin is a nonapeptide (pGlu-Ala-Lys-Ser-Gln-Gly-Gly-Ser-Asn) secreted by thymic epithelial cells; it requires zinc for biological activity (zinc-thymulin, Zn-FTS). Plasma levels fall with age as the thymus involutes. No approved pharmaceutical form exists for general use.",[3243,3246],{"question":3244,"answer":3245},"What is thymulin's role in the body?","It is a thymic hormone that participates in T-cell maturation and immune regulation; its activity depends on bound zinc, and its blood levels decline with aging.",{"question":3247,"answer":3248},"Does thymulin supplementation restore immunity?","That is not established. Historical trials (e.g., in rheumatoid arthritis) showed mixed results, and no modern large trials support immune restoration claims.","https://cbzugwmbrmdvvkvtjpnn.supabase.co/storage/v1/object/public/peptide_category_icons/anti_aging.png",{"id":2222,"slug":3251,"title":3252,"display_order":8,"peptides":3253,"icon":6243},"cognitive-mental","Cognitive & Mental",[3254,3634,4035,4336,4575,5008,5087,5440,5852,5944,6032,6140],{"id":1021,"name":3255,"slug":3256,"description":3257,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":15,"views":2990,"shortDescription":3258,"researchStatus":3259,"peptideBenefits":3260,"benefits":3295,"peptideSideEffects":3308,"sideEffects":3325,"dosage":3331,"mechanism":3332,"safetyNote":148,"athleteWarning":149,"chemicalMakeup":3333,"citations":3334,"research":3569,"statsCache":3570,"imageUrl":3572,"molecularWeight":3573,"molecularFormula":3574,"pubchemId":3575,"sequence":3576,"halfLife":3577,"administrationRoute":540,"casNumber":3578,"smiles":3579,"totalMentions":2290,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"protocols":3580,"aliases":3593,"researchAreas":3598,"evidence":3605,"keyStudies":3610,"limitations":3622,"pharmacology":3623,"faqs":3624,"lastReviewed":359},"ARA-290","ara-290","ARA-290 (Cibinetide) is a synthetic 11-amino acid peptide derived from the structure of erythropoietin (EPO) that activates the innate repair receptor (IRR, a heteromer of EPO receptor and CD131) without stimulating erythropoiesis. This tissue-protective mechanism is distinct from EPO's hematopoietic effects. Research demonstrates ARA-290 reduces neuropathic pain, promotes tissue repair, decreases inflammation, and protects against ischemic injury in multiple organ systems. Clinical trials have evaluated the peptide for diabetic neuropathy, sarcoidosis, and critical limb ischemia with evidence of improved symptoms and tissue healing. The peptide does not increase red blood cell production, eliminating concerns about polycythemia and thrombotic events associated with EPO therapy. Studies show beneficial effects on small fiber neuropathy, wound healing, and metabolic parameters. ARA-290 may help restore corneal nerve fiber density and improve sensory function. The tissue-protective EPO signaling pathway represents a novel therapeutic target for conditions involving inflammation and tissue damage without the risks of erythropoiesis stimulation.","Tissue-protective peptide for neuropathy and inflammatory conditions","Research compound - EPO derivative",[3261,3263,3266,3269,3272,3275,3278,3281,3284,3287,3290,3292],{"id":3262,"benefit":957,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},254,{"id":3264,"benefit":3265,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},255,"Nerve repair",{"id":3267,"benefit":3268,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},256,"Pain reduction",{"id":3270,"benefit":3271,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},257,"Inflammation control",{"id":3273,"benefit":3274,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},258,"Tissue healing",{"id":3276,"benefit":3277,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},259,"Diabetic neuropathy support",{"id":3279,"benefit":3280,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},383,"Pain relief",{"id":3282,"benefit":3283,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},384,"Nerve protection",{"id":3285,"benefit":3286,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},385,"Inflammation reduction",{"id":3288,"benefit":3289,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},386,"Neuropathic pain management",{"id":3291,"benefit":3007,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},387,{"id":3293,"benefit":3294,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},388,"Quality of life improvement",[3296,3297,3298,3299,3300,3301,3302,3303,3304,3305,3306,3307],{"id":3262,"benefit":957,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3264,"benefit":3265,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3267,"benefit":3268,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3270,"benefit":3271,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3273,"benefit":3274,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3276,"benefit":3277,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3279,"benefit":3280,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3282,"benefit":3283,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3285,"benefit":3286,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3288,"benefit":3289,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3291,"benefit":3007,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3293,"benefit":3294,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},[3309,3314,3317,3320,3323],{"id":3310,"sideEffect":120,"description":23,"severity":23,"frequency":3311,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":3312,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":3313,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":671,"doseDependent":15,"needsReview":15},522,"0% serious AEs","pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32674280/","ARA-290 (Cibinetide)",{"id":3315,"sideEffect":120,"description":23,"severity":23,"frequency":3316,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":3312,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":3313,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":671,"doseDependent":15,"needsReview":15},523,"0% immunogenicity",{"id":3318,"sideEffect":3319,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},226,"Very few",{"id":3321,"sideEffect":3322,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},227,"Occasional GI upset",{"id":3324,"sideEffect":3039,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},228,[3326,3327,3328,3329,3330],{"id":3310,"sideEffect":120,"description":23,"severity":23,"frequency":3311,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":3312,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":3313,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":671,"doseDependent":15,"needsReview":15},{"id":3315,"sideEffect":120,"description":23,"severity":23,"frequency":3316,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":3312,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":3313,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":671,"doseDependent":15,"needsReview":15},{"id":3318,"sideEffect":3319,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":3321,"sideEffect":3322,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":3324,"sideEffect":3039,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"1-4mg 3x weekly","Non-erythropoietic EPO derivative for tissue protection and neuropathy","Tripeptide Lys-Pro-Val, fragment of α-MSH",[3335,3342,3348,3354,3359,3365,3371,3377,3382,3388,3393,3398,3404,3409,3414,3419,3424,3428,3433,3438,3443,3448,3454,3460,3465,3469,3474,3479,3483,3488,3493,3498,3502,3507,3511,3517,3523,3528,3534,3538,3543,3548,3553,3557,3561,3565],{"id":3336,"title":3337,"authors":155,"journal":3338,"year":458,"citationType":3339,"doi":3340,"researchPaperId":3341},78,"ARA-290 (Cibinetide) for Neuropathic Pain: Phase 2 Results","Neuromuscular Disorders","RCT Phase II","10.1016/j.nmd.2024.04.008","pubmed_38756234",{"id":3343,"title":3344,"authors":3345,"journal":3346,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":3347},188,"Synthesis and evaluation of (99m)Tc-DOTA-ARA-290 as potential SPECT tracer for targeting cardiac ischemic region.","Mohtavinejad N, Hajiramezanali M, Akhlaghi M, Bitarafan-Rajabi A, Gholipour N","Iranian journal of basic medical sciences","10.22038/IJBMS.2021.57565.12799",{"id":3349,"title":3350,"authors":3351,"journal":3352,"year":1152,"citationType":167,"doi":3353},183,"ARA 290 for treatment of small fiber neuropathy in sarcoidosis.","van Velzen M, Heij L, Niesters M, Cerami A, Dunne A, Dahan A, Brines M","Expert opinion on investigational drugs","10.1517/13543784.2014.892072",{"id":3355,"title":3356,"authors":3357,"journal":3059,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":3358},184,"ARA 290 relieves pathophysiological pain by targeting TRPV1 channel: Integration between immune system and nociception.","Zhang W, Yu G, Zhang M","10.1016/j.peptides.2016.01.003",{"id":3360,"title":3361,"authors":3362,"journal":3363,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":3364},185,"Early monocyte modulation by the non-erythropoietic peptide ARA 290 decelerates AD-like pathology progression.","Al-Onaizi MA, Thériault P, Lecordier S, Prefontaine P, Rivest S, ElAli A","Brain, behavior, and immunity","10.1016/j.bbi.2021.07.016",{"id":3366,"title":3367,"authors":3368,"journal":3369,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":3370},186,"ARA 290, a nonerythropoietic peptide engineered from erythropoietin, improves metabolic control and neuropathic symptoms in patients with type 2 diabetes.","Brines M, Dunne AN, van Velzen M, Proto PL, Ostenson CG, Kirk RI, Petropoulos IN, Javed S, Malik RA, Cerami A, Dahan A","Molecular medicine (Cambridge, Mass.)","10.2119/molmed.2014.00215",{"id":3372,"title":3373,"authors":3374,"journal":3375,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":3376},187,"A Nonhematopoietic Erythropoietin Analogue, ARA 290, Inhibits Macrophage Activation and Prevents Damage to Transplanted Islets.","Watanabe M, Lundgren T, Saito Y, Cerami A, Brines M, Östenson CG, Kumagai-Braesch M","Transplantation","10.1097/TP.0000000000001026",{"id":3378,"title":3379,"authors":3380,"journal":3369,"year":260,"citationType":167,"doi":3381},189,"ARA 290 improves symptoms in patients with sarcoidosis-associated small nerve fiber loss and increases corneal nerve fiber density.","Dahan A, Dunne A, Swartjes M, Proto PL, Heij L, Vogels O, van Velzen M, Sarton E, Niesters M, Tannemaat MR, Cerami A, Brines M","10.2119/molmed.2013.00122",{"id":3383,"title":3384,"authors":3385,"journal":3386,"year":1152,"citationType":167,"doi":3387},190,"ARA 290, a peptide derived from the tertiary structure of erythropoietin, produces long-term relief of neuropathic pain coupled with suppression of the spinal microglia response.","Swartjes M, van Velzen M, Niesters M, Aarts L, Brines M, Dunne A, Cerami A, Dahan A","Molecular pain","10.1186/1744-8069-10-13",{"id":3389,"title":3390,"authors":3391,"journal":3369,"year":260,"citationType":167,"doi":3392},191,"Editorial.","Tracey KJ","10.2119/molmed.2013.00135",{"id":3394,"title":3395,"authors":3396,"journal":3369,"year":1196,"citationType":167,"doi":3397},192,"Safety and efficacy of ARA 290 in sarcoidosis patients with symptoms of small fiber neuropathy: a randomized, double-blind pilot study.","Heij L, Niesters M, Swartjes M, Hoitsma E, Drent M, Dunne A, Grutters JC, Vogels O, Brines M, Cerami A, Dahan A","10.2119/molmed.2012.00332",{"id":3399,"title":3400,"authors":3401,"journal":3402,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":3403},193,"Managing fatigue in sarcoidosis - A systematic review of the evidence.","Atkins C, Wilson AM","Chronic respiratory disease","10.1177/1479972316661926",{"id":3405,"title":3406,"authors":3407,"journal":2696,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":3408},194,"The protective effect of erythropoietin and its novel derived peptides in peripheral nerve injury.","Liu G, Liang J, Li W, Jiang S, Song M, Xu S, Du Q, Wang L, Wang X, Liu X, Tang L, Yang Z, Zhou M, Meng H, Zhang L, Yang Y, Zhang B","10.1016/j.intimp.2024.112452",{"id":3410,"title":3411,"authors":3412,"journal":1990,"year":1152,"citationType":167,"doi":3413},195,"Erythropoietin-derived nonerythropoietic peptide ameliorates experimental autoimmune neuritis by inflammation suppression and tissue protection.","Liu Y, Luo B, Han F, Li X, Xiong J, Jiang M, Yang X, Wu Y, Zhang Z","10.1371/journal.pone.0090942",{"id":3415,"title":3416,"authors":3417,"journal":3352,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":3418},196,"The time to develop treatments for diabetic neuropathy.","Rendell MS","10.1080/13543784.2021.1868433",{"id":130,"title":3420,"authors":3421,"journal":3422,"year":1152,"citationType":167,"doi":3423},"Potential role of erythropoietin receptors and ligands in attenuating apoptosis and inflammation in critical limb ischemia.","Joshi D, Abraham D, Shiwen X, Baker D, Tsui J","Journal of vascular surgery","10.1016/j.jvs.2013.06.054",{"id":124,"title":3425,"authors":3426,"journal":728,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":3427},"Flipping the molecular switch for innate protection and repair of tissues: Long-lasting effects of a non-erythropoietic small peptide engineered from erythropoietin.","Collino M, Thiemermann C, Cerami A, Brines M","10.1016/j.pharmthera.2015.02.005",{"id":133,"title":3429,"authors":3430,"journal":3431,"year":1196,"citationType":167,"doi":3432},"Sarcoidosis and pain caused by small-fiber neuropathy.","Heij L, Dahan A, Hoitsma E","Pain research and treatment","10.1155/2012/256024",{"id":127,"title":3434,"authors":3435,"journal":3436,"year":1152,"citationType":167,"doi":3437},"Erythropoietin-mediated protection in kidney transplantation: nonerythropoietic EPO derivatives improve function without increasing risk of cardiovascular events.","van Rijt WG, van Goor H, Ploeg RJ, Leuvenink HG","Transplant international : official journal of the European Society for Organ Transplantation","10.1111/tri.12174",{"id":3439,"title":3440,"authors":3441,"journal":484,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":3442},201,"Non-erythropoietic erythropoietin-derived peptide protects mice from systemic lupus erythematosus.","Huang B, Jiang J, Luo B, Zhu W, Liu Y, Wang Z, Zhang Z","10.1111/jcmm.13608",{"id":3444,"title":3445,"authors":3446,"journal":2206,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":3447},202,"Mechanistic Approach for Protective Effect of ARA290, a Specific Ligand for the Erythropoietin/CD131 Heteroreceptor, against Cisplatin-Induced Nephrotoxicity, the Involvement of Apoptosis and Inflammation Pathways.","Ghassemi-Barghi N, Ehsanfar Z, Mohammadrezakhani O, Ashari S, Ghiabi S, Bayrami Z","10.1007/s10753-022-01737-7",{"id":3449,"title":3450,"authors":3451,"journal":3452,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":3453},203,"Characterization of in vitro generated metabolites of selected peptides \u003C2 kDa prohibited in sports.","Thomas A, Knoop A, Schänzer W, Thevis M","Drug testing and analysis","10.1002/dta.2306",{"id":3455,"title":3456,"authors":3457,"journal":3458,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":3459},204,"An engineered non-erythropoietic erythropoietin-derived peptide, ARA290, attenuates doxorubicin induced genotoxicity and oxidative stress.","Shokrzadeh M, Etebari M, Ghassemi-Barghi N","Toxicology in vitro : an international journal published in association with BIBRA","10.1016/j.tiv.2020.104864",{"id":404,"title":3461,"authors":3462,"journal":3463,"year":1152,"citationType":167,"doi":3464},"Detecting peptidic drugs, drug candidates and analogs in sports doping: current status and future directions.","Thevis M, Thomas A, Schänzer W","Expert review of proteomics","10.1586/14789450.2014.965159",{"id":410,"title":3466,"authors":3467,"journal":3369,"year":260,"citationType":167,"doi":3468},"Erythropoietin receptor (EpoR) agonism is used to treat a wide range of disease.","Sanchis-Gomar F, Perez-Quilis C, Lippi G","10.2119/molmed.2013.00025",{"id":407,"title":3470,"authors":3471,"journal":3472,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":3473},"A Phase 2 Clinical Trial on the Use of Cibinetide for the Treatment of Diabetic Macular Edema.","Lois N, Gardner E, McFarland M, Armstrong D, McNally C, Lavery NJ, Campbell C, Kirk RI, Bajorunas D, Dunne A, Cerami A, Brines M","Journal of clinical medicine","10.3390/jcm9072225",{"id":413,"title":3475,"authors":3476,"journal":3477,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":3478},"ARA290 Attenuates Apical Periodontitis via SIRT1/NF-κB/IL-1β Pathway Modulation.","Wang Y, Tang Y, Wang M, Li W, Mu W, Seyam A, Dai Y, Hou T, Guan X","International dental journal","10.1016/j.identj.2025.100863",{"id":3031,"title":3480,"authors":3481,"journal":2183,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":3482},"Nonerythropoietic Erythropoietin Mimetic Peptide ARA290 Ameliorates Chronic Stress-Induced Depression-Like Behavior and Inflammation in Mice.","Xu G, Zou T, Deng L, Yang G, Guo T, Wang Y, Niu C, Cheng Q, Yang X, Dong J, Zhang J","10.3389/fphar.2022.896601",{"id":3036,"title":3484,"authors":3485,"journal":3486,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":3487},"Erythropoietin-derived peptide ARA290 mediates brain tissue protection through the β-common receptor in mice with cerebral ischemic stroke.","Wang RL, Yang ZH, Huang YY, Hu Y, Wang YL, Yan F, Zheng YM, Han ZP, Fan JF, Tao Z, Zhao HP, Li SJ, Luo YM","CNS neuroscience & therapeutics","10.1111/cns.14676",{"id":3034,"title":3489,"authors":3490,"journal":3491,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":3492},"ARA290 inhibits high glucose-induced apoptosis of NRK-52E cells.","Zhao LJ, Sun XL, Qiu J, Xiao BL, Fan XY, Wang T, Li CL","Journal of biological regulators and homeostatic agents","10.23812/21-39-L",{"id":3038,"title":3494,"authors":3495,"journal":3496,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":3497},"Mechanisms of ARA290 in counteracting cadmium-triggered neurotoxicity in PC12 cells.","Motafeghi F, Fakhri B MS, Ghassemi Barghi N","Toxicology research","10.1093/toxres/tfaf023",{"id":982,"title":3499,"authors":3500,"journal":1145,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":3501},"ARA290, an alternative of erythropoietin, inhibits activation of NLRP3 inflammasome in schwann cells after sciatic nerve injury.","Liu G, Li W, Jiang S, Liang J, Song M, Wang L, Wang X, Liu X, Yang Z, Zhang L, Yang Y, Zhang B","10.1016/j.ejphar.2025.177610",{"id":979,"title":3503,"authors":3504,"journal":3505,"year":260,"citationType":167,"doi":3506},"ARA290, a non-erythropoietic EPO derivative, attenuates renal ischemia/reperfusion injury.","van Rijt WG, Nieuwenhuijs-Moeke GJ, van Goor H, Jespersen B, Ottens PJ, Ploeg RJ, Leuvenink HG","Journal of translational medicine","10.1186/1479-5876-11-9",{"id":985,"title":3508,"authors":3509,"journal":3369,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":3510},"ARA290 Improves Insulin Release and Glucose Tolerance in Type 2 Diabetic Goto-Kakizaki Rats.","Muller C, Yassin K, Li LS, Palmblad M, Efendic S, Berggren PO, Cerami A, Brines M, Östenson CG","10.2119/molmed.2015.00267",{"id":3512,"title":3513,"authors":3514,"journal":3515,"year":1122,"citationType":167,"doi":3516},216,"ARA290, a peptide derived from the tertiary structure of erythropoietin, produces long-term relief of neuropathic pain: an experimental study in rats and β-common receptor knockout mice.","Swartjes M, Morariu A, Niesters M, Brines M, Cerami A, Aarts L, Dahan A","Anesthesiology","10.1097/ALN.0b013e31822fcefd",{"id":3518,"title":3519,"authors":3520,"journal":3521,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":3522},217,"ARA290, a Specific Agonist of Erythropoietin/CD131 Heteroreceptor, Improves Circulating Endothelial Progenitors' Angiogenic Potential and Homing Ability.","Hache G, Garrigue P, Bennis Y, Stalin J, Moyon A, Cerami A, Brines M, Blot-Chabaud M, Sabatier F, Dignat-George F, Guillet B","Shock (Augusta, Ga.)","10.1097/SHK.0000000000000606",{"id":3524,"title":3525,"authors":3526,"journal":1527,"year":1152,"citationType":167,"doi":3527},218,"Therapeutic effects of nonerythropoietic erythropoietin analog ARA290 in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis rat.","Chen H, Luo B, Yang X, Xiong J, Liu Z, Jiang M, Shi R, Yan C, Wu Y, Zhang Z","10.1016/j.jneuroim.2014.01.006",{"id":3529,"title":3530,"authors":3531,"journal":3532,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":3533},219,"EPO Derivative ARA290 Attenuates Early Renal Allograft Injury in Rats by Targeting NF-κB Pathway.","Yan L, Zhang H, Gao S, Zhu G, Zhu Q, Gu Y, Shao F","Transplantation proceedings","10.1016/j.transproceed.2018.03.015",{"id":2339,"title":3535,"authors":3536,"journal":3505,"year":260,"citationType":167,"doi":3537},"Renoprotective capacities of non-erythropoietic EPO derivative, ARA290, following renal ischemia/reperfusion injury.","van Rijt WG, Nieuwenhuijs-Moeke GJ, van Goor H, Ottens PJ, Ploeg RJ, Leuvenink HG","10.1186/1479-5876-11-286",{"id":2344,"title":3539,"authors":3540,"journal":3541,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":3542},"Testing the antidepressant properties of the peptide ARA290 in a human neuropsychological model of drug action.","Cerit H, Veer IM, Dahan A, Niesters M, Harmer CJ, Miskowiak KW, Rombouts SA, Van der Does W","European neuropsychopharmacology : the journal of the European College of Neuropsychopharmacology","10.1016/j.euroneuro.2015.09.005",{"id":2342,"title":3544,"authors":3545,"journal":3546,"year":260,"citationType":167,"doi":3547},"The erythropoietin-derived peptide ARA290 reverses mechanical allodynia in the neuritis model.","Pulman KG, Smith M, Mengozzi M, Ghezzi P, Dilley A","Neuroscience","10.1016/j.neuroscience.2012.12.022",{"id":2618,"title":3549,"authors":3550,"journal":3551,"year":1122,"citationType":167,"doi":3552},"The erythropoietin analogue ARA290 modulates the innate immune response and reduces Escherichia coli invasion into urothelial cells.","Polgárová K, Lüthje P, Cerami A, Brauner A","FEMS immunology and medical microbiology","10.1111/j.1574-695X.2011.00801.x",{"id":2623,"title":3554,"authors":3555,"journal":703,"year":260,"citationType":167,"doi":3556},"ARA290 in a rat model of inflammatory pain.","Dilley A","10.1007/978-1-62703-308-4_14",{"id":2620,"title":3558,"authors":3559,"journal":2177,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":3560},"A small erythropoietin derived non-hematopoietic peptide reduces cardiac inflammation, attenuates age associated declines in heart function and prolongs healthspan.","Winicki NM, Nanavati AP, Morrell CH, Moen JM, Axsom JE, Krawczyk M, Petrashevskaya NN, Beyman MG, Ramirez C, Alfaras I, Mitchell SJ, Juhaszova M, Riordon DR, Wang M, Zhang J, Cerami A, Brines M, Sollott SJ, de Cabo R, Lakatta EG","10.3389/fcvm.2022.1096887",{"id":3318,"title":3562,"authors":3563,"journal":2041,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":3564},"The Role of Erythropoietin in Metabolic Regulation.","Yin W, Noguchi CT","10.3390/cells14040280",{"id":3321,"title":3566,"authors":3567,"journal":2171,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":3568},"Co-delivery of a growth factor and a tissue-protective molecule using elastin biopolymers accelerates wound healing in diabetic mice.","Devalliere J, Dooley K, Hu Y, Kelangi SS, Uygun BE, Yarmush ML","10.1016/j.biomaterials.2017.06.043",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":2290,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":3571},"2026-01-05T22:12:02.548457","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/ara-290.avif","2.9","C51H84N16O21","91810664","MKPFCVFLTFFLLLAASSKKVDSAETVSFNFNSFSEGNPAINFQGDVTVLSNGNIQLTNLNKVNSVGRVLYAMPVRIWSSATGNVASFLTSFSFEMKDIKDYDPADGIIFFIAPEDTQIPAGSIGGGTLGVSDTKGAGHFVGVEFDTYSNSEYNDPPTDHVGIDVNSVDSVKTVPWNSVSGAVVKVTVIYDSSTKTLSVAVTNDNGDITTIAQVVDLKAKLPERVKFGFSASGSLGGRQIHLIRSWSFTSTLITTTRRSIDNNEKKIMNMASA","4-6 hours","1208243-50-8","C[C@@H](C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(C)C)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(=O)N)C(=O)N[C@@H](CO)C(=O)N[C@@H](CO)C(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@H](CCCN=C(N)N)NC(=O)[C@H](CCC(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(C)C)NC(=O)[C@H](CCC(=O)N)NC(=O)[C@H](CCC(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@@H]1CCC(=O)N1",[3581,3584,3587,3590],{"name":3582,"dose":3583,"frequency":1801,"route":311},"Neuropathy Treatment","4 mg daily",{"name":3585,"dose":3586,"frequency":1801,"route":311},"Tissue Protection","1-8 mg daily",{"name":3588,"dose":3589,"frequency":889,"route":2245},"Acute Intervention","2 mg",{"name":3591,"dose":3583,"frequency":3592,"route":311},"Research Protocol","Once daily for 28 days",[3594,3595,3596,3597],"Cibinetide","ARA 290","ARA290","EPO-derived peptide",[3599,3600,3601,3602,3603,3604],"Small fiber neuropathy","Sarcoidosis","Diabetic neuropathy","Neuropathic pain","Tissue protection / innate repair receptor","Corneal nerve regeneration",{"human":3606,"animal":3607,"inVitro":3608,"uncertain":3609},"Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot trial in 22 sarcoidosis patients with small fiber neuropathy found 4 weeks of intravenous ARA-290 (2 mg, 3x/week) significantly improved the Small Fiber Neuropathy Screening List score and SF-36 pain/physical functioning vs placebo. A phase 2 study in type 2 diabetes (28 days of daily subcutaneous 4 mg) reported improved neuropathic symptoms (PainDetect), improved HbA1c and lipid profiles, and increased corneal nerve fiber density in subjects with low baseline CNFD.","Preclinical neuropathy models showed ARA-290 reduces allodynia, and the peptide's tissue-protective, anti-inflammatory signaling via the innate repair receptor (EPO receptor/CD131 heteromer) was established in rodent injury models.","Cell-based studies established selective activation of the innate repair receptor without erythropoietin receptor homodimer activation, explaining the absence of erythropoiesis stimulation.","Long-term effects, optimal dosing/duration for neuropathy, and benefit in conditions beyond sarcoidosis and diabetic neuropathy remain unproven; no regulatory approval has been granted.",[3611,3615,3619],{"finding":3612,"source":3613,"year":1196,"link":3614,"evidenceLevel":46},"In 22 sarcoidosis patients with small fiber neuropathy, ARA-290 (2 mg IV 3x/week for 4 weeks) significantly improved neuropathic symptom scores (SFNSL) and SF-36 pain/physical functioning vs placebo with no safety concerns.","Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot study (Molecular Medicine)","https://doi.org/10.2119/molmed.2012.00332",{"finding":3616,"source":3617,"year":1516,"link":3618,"evidenceLevel":46},"Phase 2 study in type 2 diabetes: 28 days of daily SC ARA-290 (4 mg) improved PainDetect neuropathic symptoms, HbA1c and lipids, and increased corneal nerve fiber density in subjects with low baseline CNFD.","Phase 2 study (Molecular Medicine)","https://doi.org/10.2119/molmed.2014.00215",{"finding":3620,"source":3621,"year":1196,"link":3614,"evidenceLevel":50},"Preclinical neuropathy models demonstrated ARA-290 reduces allodynia by activating the innate repair receptor, establishing the mechanism for its tissue-protective and analgesic effects.","Preclinical study (referenced in clinical trial reports)","Evidence is limited to small, exploratory, company-sponsored trials; no large phase 3 or regulatory approval exists. Benefits were modest and some endpoints (e.g., depression scores) showed no change. The product is not marketed for any approved indication.","ARA-290 is an 11-amino-acid peptide derived from the EPO structure that binds the innate repair receptor (EPOR/CD131 heteromer) without activating hematopoietic signaling. Studied routes include intravenous (2 mg 3x/week in the sarcoidosis trial) and subcutaneous (4 mg daily in the T2D trial). It does not stimulate red blood cell production. No pharmacokinetic half-life data were reported in the indexed trials.",[3625,3628,3631],{"question":3626,"answer":3627},"Is ARA-290 the same as erythropoietin?","No. ARA-290 (cibinetide) is an 11-amino-acid peptide engineered from EPO that activates only the tissue-protective innate repair receptor, not the erythropoiesis-stimulating EPO receptor homodimer.",{"question":3629,"answer":3630},"Has ARA-290 been studied for small fiber neuropathy?","Yes — in a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot trial in sarcoidosis patients with small fiber neuropathy, and in a phase 2 study in type 2 diabetes, both showing improved neuropathic symptoms.",{"question":3632,"answer":3633},"Is ARA-290 approved by any regulator?","No. ARA-290/cibinetide remains an investigational compound with no FDA or EMA approval.",{"id":294,"name":3635,"slug":3636,"description":3637,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":28,"views":3638,"shortDescription":3639,"researchStatus":3640,"peptideBenefits":3641,"benefits":3702,"peptideSideEffects":3722,"sideEffects":3745,"dosage":3754,"mechanism":3755,"safetyNote":3756,"athleteWarning":3757,"chemicalMakeup":3054,"citations":3758,"research":3967,"statsCache":3968,"imageUrl":3971,"molecularWeight":3972,"molecularFormula":3973,"pubchemId":3974,"sequence":3975,"halfLife":3976,"administrationRoute":3977,"casNumber":3978,"smiles":3979,"totalMentions":3969,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"protocols":3980,"aliases":4003,"researchAreas":4008,"evidence":4012,"keyStudies":4017,"limitations":4026,"pharmacology":4027,"faqs":4028,"lastReviewed":359},"GHK-Cu","ghk-cu","GHK-Cu (Glycyl-L-Histidyl-L-Lysine Copper) is a small peptide naturally found in your blood, saliva, and urine that decreases significantly as you age. It's often called the \"fountain of youth\" peptide because of its remarkable regenerative properties. **What makes it special?** GHK-Cu is one of the most researched peptides in skincare and wound healing. It works by binding to copper, then delivering that copper to tissues where it activates repair processes. Think of it as a master switch that turns on your body's healing and rejuvenation programs. **What the research shows:** • Stimulates production of collagen and elastin (the proteins that keep skin firm) • Accelerates wound healing across multiple tissue types • Can influence the expression of over 4,000 human genes — essentially \"resetting\" cells toward healthier patterns • Attracts immune cells to injury sites to speed repair • Shows anti-inflammatory effects by reducing free radicals **Where you'll find it:** Popular in anti-aging serums, wound healing products, and hair growth treatments. Available in topical and injectable forms. **Why levels matter:** At age 20, you have about 200 ng/mL in plasma. By age 60, that drops to around 80 ng/mL — potentially contributing to slower healing and aging skin. --- **Sources:** Pickart L, et al. (2015) Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. DOI:10.1155/2015/648108 | Pickart L, et al. (2008) Journal of Biomaterials Science. DOI:10.1163/156856208784909435",37,"Copper peptide complex for skin regeneration and anti-aging","Research compound - copper_peptide",[3642,3647,3650,3653,3655,3657,3659,3661,3663,3666,3669,3673,3676,3680,3684,3687,3691,3695,3699],{"id":3643,"benefit":3644,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":3645,"sourceUrl":3646,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},180,"Collagen production","1p8j27s","https://reddit.com/r/Peptides/comments/1p8j27s/ghkcu/",{"id":3648,"benefit":3649,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":3645,"sourceUrl":3646,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},181,"Anti-inflammatory",{"id":3651,"benefit":3652,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":3645,"sourceUrl":3646,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},182,"Antioxidant effects",{"id":3349,"benefit":3654,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":3645,"sourceUrl":3646,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Skin rejuvenation",{"id":3355,"benefit":3656,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":3645,"sourceUrl":3646,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Hair growth support",{"id":361,"benefit":3658,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":3645,"sourceUrl":3646,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Collagen synthesis",{"id":3660,"benefit":3014,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":3645,"sourceUrl":3646,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},60,{"id":3662,"benefit":34,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":3645,"sourceUrl":3646,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},61,{"id":3664,"benefit":3665,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":3645,"sourceUrl":3646,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},62,"Tissue remodeling",{"id":3667,"benefit":3668,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":3645,"sourceUrl":3646,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},63,"Antioxidant properties",{"id":3670,"benefit":3671,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":3672,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},465,"Skin Regeneration: Stimulates collagen/GAG synthesis, tightens skin","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26236730/",{"id":3674,"benefit":3675,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":3672,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},466,"Wound Healing: Accelerates healing in skin, hair follicles, bone",{"id":3677,"benefit":3678,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":3679,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},467,"Anti-Aging: Modulates 4,000+ genes, increases stem cell proliferative potential","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23019153/",{"id":3681,"benefit":3682,"benefitCategory":3683,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},572,"Wound healing acceleration","wound healing",{"id":3685,"benefit":3686,"benefitCategory":6,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},573,"48.90% elastase inhibition",{"id":3688,"benefit":3689,"benefitCategory":3690,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},574,"Anti-inflammatory and antioxidant","anti-inflammatory",{"id":3692,"benefit":3693,"benefitCategory":3694,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},575,"Collagen synthesis stimulation","skin health",{"id":3696,"benefit":3697,"benefitCategory":3698,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},576,"Hair growth promotion (Wnt/β-catenin pathway)","hair growth",{"id":3700,"benefit":3701,"benefitCategory":3683,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},577,"Diabetic wound healing",[3703,3704,3705,3706,3707,3708,3709,3710,3711,3712,3713,3714,3715,3716,3717,3718,3719,3720,3721],{"id":3643,"benefit":3644,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":3645,"sourceUrl":3646,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3648,"benefit":3649,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":3645,"sourceUrl":3646,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3651,"benefit":3652,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":3645,"sourceUrl":3646,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3349,"benefit":3654,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":3645,"sourceUrl":3646,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3355,"benefit":3656,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":3645,"sourceUrl":3646,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":361,"benefit":3658,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":3645,"sourceUrl":3646,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3660,"benefit":3014,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":3645,"sourceUrl":3646,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3662,"benefit":34,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":3645,"sourceUrl":3646,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3664,"benefit":3665,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":3645,"sourceUrl":3646,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3667,"benefit":3668,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":3645,"sourceUrl":3646,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3670,"benefit":3671,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":3672,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":3674,"benefit":3675,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":3672,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":3677,"benefit":3678,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":3679,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":3681,"benefit":3682,"benefitCategory":3683,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},{"id":3685,"benefit":3686,"benefitCategory":6,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},{"id":3688,"benefit":3689,"benefitCategory":3690,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},{"id":3692,"benefit":3693,"benefitCategory":3694,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},{"id":3696,"benefit":3697,"benefitCategory":3698,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},{"id":3700,"benefit":3701,"benefitCategory":3683,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},[3723,3727,3730,3733,3735,3737,3739,3741],{"id":3724,"sideEffect":3725,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":23,"source":44,"sourceType":44,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":3726,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},310,"Low skin irritation","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27892491/",{"id":3728,"sideEffect":3729,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":23,"source":44,"sourceType":44,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":3726,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},311,"No cytotoxicity",{"id":3731,"sideEffect":3732,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":23,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":3646,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},312,"Theoretical copper concerns",{"id":3734,"sideEffect":3032,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":3646,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},119,{"id":3736,"sideEffect":112,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":3646,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},120,{"id":3738,"sideEffect":405,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":3646,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},121,{"id":3740,"sideEffect":3039,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":3646,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},122,{"id":3742,"sideEffect":120,"description":23,"severity":23,"frequency":3743,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":3744,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":3635,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":671,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},524,"0%","pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25690343/",[3746,3747,3748,3749,3750,3751,3752,3753],{"id":3724,"sideEffect":3725,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":23,"source":44,"sourceType":44,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":3726,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":3728,"sideEffect":3729,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":23,"source":44,"sourceType":44,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":3726,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":3731,"sideEffect":3732,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":23,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":3646,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":3734,"sideEffect":3032,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":3646,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":3736,"sideEffect":112,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":3646,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":3738,"sideEffect":405,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":3646,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":3740,"sideEffect":3039,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":3646,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":3742,"sideEffect":120,"description":23,"severity":23,"frequency":3743,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":3744,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":3635,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":671,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"1% topical or 1-2mg SC","Copper peptide that promotes collagen synthesis","Research compound. Generally well-tolerated topically but limited long-term safety data.","WADA BANNED - Prohibited in competitive sports as copper_peptide complex",[3759,3765,3771,3776,3781,3787,3793,3798,3803,3808,3812,3816,3820,3824,3829,3833,3838,3843,3849,3855,3861,3867,3873,3879,3885,3891,3895,3901,3906,3911,3917,3923,3929,3934,3940,3946,3951,3956,3962],{"id":3760,"title":3761,"authors":155,"journal":3762,"year":458,"citationType":158,"doi":3763,"researchPaperId":3764},24,"GHK-Cu Peptide in Skin Rejuvenation and Wound Healing","Cosmetics","10.3390/cosmetics11010015","pubmed_39937124",{"id":3766,"title":3767,"authors":155,"journal":3768,"year":458,"citationType":158,"doi":3769,"researchPaperId":3770},26,"Antioxidant Properties of GHK-Cu Tripeptide","Antioxidants","10.3390/antiox13010089","pubmed_39902373",{"id":3772,"title":3773,"authors":155,"journal":156,"year":697,"citationType":158,"doi":3774,"researchPaperId":3775},28,"GHK Peptide as a Natural Modulator of Multiple Cellular Pathways","10.3390/ijms20235743","pubmed_31809714",{"id":3777,"title":3778,"authors":3779,"journal":516,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":3780},565,"Regenerative and Protective Actions of the GHK-Cu Peptide in the Light of the New Gene Data.","Pickart L, Margolina A","10.3390/ijms19071987",{"id":3782,"title":3783,"authors":3784,"journal":3785,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":3786},566,"The potential of GHK as an anti-aging peptide.","Dou Y, Lee A, Zhu L, Morton J, Ladiges W","Aging pathobiology and therapeutics","10.31491/apt.2020.03.014",{"id":3788,"title":3789,"authors":3790,"journal":3791,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":3792},567,"Phenothiazine-Based Cu(II)-Selective Fluorescent Sensor: GHK-Cu Sensing Applications.","Sahu R, Yadav S, Gunturu KC, Kapdi AR","The Journal of organic chemistry","10.1021/acs.joc.3c01600",{"id":48,"title":3794,"authors":3795,"journal":3796,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":3797},"Liposomes as Carriers of GHK-Cu Tripeptide for Cosmetic Application.","Dymek M, Olechowska K, Hąc-Wydro K, Sikora E","Pharmaceutics","10.3390/pharmaceutics15102485",{"id":52,"title":3799,"authors":3800,"journal":3801,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":3802},"Synergy of GHK-Cu and hyaluronic acid on collagen IV upregulation via fibroblast and ex-vivo skin tests.","Jiang F, Wu Y, Liu Z, Hong M, Huang Y","Journal of cosmetic dermatology","10.1111/jocd.15763",{"id":55,"title":3804,"authors":3805,"journal":3806,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":3807},"GHK-Cu-liposomes accelerate scald wound healing in mice by promoting cell proliferation and angiogenesis.","Wang X, Liu B, Xu Q, Sun H, Shi M, Wang D, Guo M, Yu J, Zhao C, Feng B","Wound repair and regeneration : official publication of the Wound Healing Society [and] the European Tissue Repair Society","10.1111/wrr.12520",{"id":58,"title":3809,"authors":3810,"journal":2183,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":3811},"Exploring the beneficial effects of GHK-Cu on an experimental model of colitis and the underlying mechanisms.","Mao S, Huang J, Li J, Sun F, Zhang Q, Cheng Q, Zeng W, Lei D, Wang S, Yao J","10.3389/fphar.2025.1551843",{"id":3681,"title":3813,"authors":3814,"journal":516,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":3815},"Ternary Cu(II) Complex with GHK Peptide and Cis-Urocanic Acid as a Potential Physiologically Functional Copper Chelate.","Bossak-Ahmad K, Wiśniewska MD, Bal W, Drew SC, Frączyk T","10.3390/ijms21176190",{"id":3685,"title":3817,"authors":3818,"journal":1071,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":3819},"Protective effects of GHK-Cu in bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis via anti-oxidative stress and anti-inflammation pathways.","Ma WH, Li M, Ma HF, Li W, Liu L, Yin Y, Zhou XM, Hou G","10.1016/j.lfs.2019.117139",{"id":3688,"title":3821,"authors":3822,"journal":1754,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":3823},"Are We Ready to Measure Skin Permeation of Modern Antiaging GHK-Cu Tripeptide Encapsulated in Liposomes?","Ogórek K, Nowak K, Wadych E, Ruzik L, Timerbaev AR, Matczuk M","10.3390/molecules30010136",{"id":3692,"title":3825,"authors":3826,"journal":3827,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":3828},"Glycyl-l-histidyl-l-lysine-Cu(2+) rescues cigarette smoking-induced skeletal muscle dysfunction via a sirtuin 1-dependent pathway.","Deng M, Zhang Q, Yan L, Bian Y, Li R, Gao J, Wang Y, Miao J, Li J, Zhou X, Hou G","Journal of cachexia, sarcopenia and muscle","10.1002/jcsm.13213",{"id":3696,"title":3830,"authors":3831,"journal":1938,"year":1196,"citationType":167,"doi":3832},"The human tripeptide GHK-Cu in prevention of oxidative stress and degenerative conditions of aging: implications for cognitive health.","Pickart L, Vasquez-Soltero JM, Margolina A","10.1155/2012/324832",{"id":3700,"title":3834,"authors":3835,"journal":3836,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":3837},"Topically applied GHK as an anti-wrinkle peptide: Advantages, problems and prospective.","Mortazavi SM, Mohammadi Vadoud SA, Moghimi HR","BioImpacts : BI","10.34172/bi.30071",{"id":3839,"title":3840,"authors":3841,"journal":2894,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":3842},578,"The tri-peptide GHK-Cu complex ameliorates lipopolysaccharide-induced acute lung injury in mice.","Park JR, Lee H, Kim SI, Yang SR","10.18632/oncotarget.11168",{"id":3844,"title":3845,"authors":3846,"journal":3847,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":3848},579,"Electrophoretic deposition of GHK-Cu loaded MSN-chitosan coatings with pH-responsive release of copper and its bioactivity.","Ning C, Jiajia J, Meng L, Hongfei Q, Xianglong W, Tingli L","Materials science & engineering. C, Materials for biological applications","10.1016/j.msec.2019.109746",{"id":3850,"title":3851,"authors":3852,"journal":3853,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":3854},580,"The glycyl-l-histidyl-l-lysine-Cu(2+) tripeptide complex attenuates lung inflammation and fibrosis in silicosis by targeting peroxiredoxin 6.","Bian Y, Deng M, Liu J, Li J, Zhang Q, Wang Z, Liao L, Miao J, Li R, Zhou X, Hou G","Redox biology","10.1016/j.redox.2024.103237",{"id":3856,"title":3857,"authors":3858,"journal":3859,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":3860},581,"An injectable hydroxyapatite microsphere filler loaded with GHK-Cu tripeptide for anti-Inflammatory and antioxidant.","Hu D, Zhang X, Gong S, Ma W, Cheng B, Yang J, Yan L, Li B, Qiu T, Wang X","Colloids and surfaces. B, Biointerfaces","10.1016/j.colsurfb.2025.114982",{"id":3862,"title":3863,"authors":3864,"journal":3865,"year":1122,"citationType":167,"doi":3866},582,"X-ray and solution structures of Cu(II) GHK and Cu(II) DAHK complexes: influence on their redox properties.","Hureau C, Eury H, Guillot R, Bijani C, Sayen S, Solari PL, Guillon E, Faller P, Dorlet P","Chemistry (Weinheim an der Bergstrasse, Germany)","10.1002/chem.201100751",{"id":3868,"title":3869,"authors":3870,"journal":3871,"year":229,"citationType":167,"doi":3872},583,"The human tri-peptide GHK and tissue remodeling.","Pickart L","Journal of biomaterials science. Polymer edition","10.1163/156856208784909435",{"id":3874,"title":3875,"authors":3876,"journal":3877,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":3878},584,"Tripeptide-copper complex GHK-Cu (II) transiently improved healing outcome in a rat model of ACL reconstruction.","Fu SC, Cheuk YC, Chiu WY, Yung SH, Rolf CG, Chan KM","Journal of orthopaedic research : official publication of the Orthopaedic Research Society","10.1002/jor.22831",{"id":3880,"title":3881,"authors":3882,"journal":3883,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":3884},585,"Novel Applications of CE-ICP-MS/MS: Monitoring of Antiaging GHK-Cu Cosmetic Component Encapsulation in Liposomes.","Zajda J, Wadych E, Ogórek K, Drozd M, Matczuk M","Electrophoresis","10.1002/elps.202400047",{"id":3886,"title":3887,"authors":3888,"journal":3889,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":3890},586,"Intranasal GHK peptide enhances resilience to cognitive decline in aging mice.","Tucker M, Keely A, Park JY, Rosenfeld M, Wezeman J, Mangalindan R, Ratner D, Ladiges W","bioRxiv : the preprint server for biology","10.1101/2023.11.16.567423",{"id":3892,"title":3893,"authors":3831,"journal":2212,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":3894},587,"GHK Peptide as a Natural Modulator of Multiple Cellular Pathways in Skin Regeneration.","10.1155/2015/648108",{"id":3896,"title":3897,"authors":3898,"journal":3899,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":3900},588,"Enhanced biological properties of collagen/chitosan-coated poly(ε-caprolactone) scaffold by surface modification with GHK-Cu peptide and 58S bioglass.","Molavi AM, Sadeghi-Avalshahr A, Nokhasteh S, Naderi-Meshkin H","Progress in biomaterials","10.1007/s40204-020-00129-0",{"id":3902,"title":3903,"authors":3904,"journal":816,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":3905},589,"Efficient Ternary Polymer Solar Cells with Tunable Crystallinity and Phase Separation of Active Layers via Incorporating GHK-Cu.","Huang J, Yu H","10.1021/acsami.1c12326",{"id":3907,"title":3908,"authors":3909,"journal":3859,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":3910},590,"Tripeptides Ghk and GhkCu-modified silver nanoparticles for enhanced antibacterial and wound healing activities.","Islam R, Bilal H, Wang X, Zhang L","10.1016/j.colsurfb.2024.113785",{"id":3912,"title":3913,"authors":3914,"journal":3915,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":3916},591,"Food-Derived Tripeptide-Copper Self-Healing Hydrogel for Infected Wound Healing.","Chen H, Yang P, Xue P, Li S, Dan X, Li Y, Lei L, Fan X","Biomaterials research","10.34133/bmr.0139",{"id":3918,"title":3919,"authors":3920,"journal":3921,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":3922},592,"Copper Complexes with New Glycyl-l-histidyl-l-lysine-Hyaluronan Conjugates Show Antioxidant Properties and Osteogenic and Angiogenic Synergistic Effects.","Greco V, Lanza V, Tomasello B, Naletova I, Cairns WRL, Sciuto S, Rizzarelli E","Bioconjugate chemistry","10.1021/acs.bioconjchem.4c00545",{"id":3924,"title":3925,"authors":3926,"journal":3927,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":3928},593,"Microneedle-Mediated Delivery of Copper Peptide Through Skin.","Li H, Low YS, Chong HP, Zin MT, Lee CY, Li B, Leolukman M, Kang L","Pharmaceutical research","10.1007/s11095-015-1652-z",{"id":3930,"title":3931,"authors":3932,"journal":464,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":3933},594,"Improved laccase production by Trametes versicolor using Copper-Glycyl-L-Histidyl-L-Lysine as a novel and high-efficient inducer.","Wang F, Yu X, Yu Z, Cui Y, Xu L, Huo S, Ding Z, Zhao L, Du L, Qiu Y","10.3389/fbioe.2023.1176352",{"id":3935,"title":3936,"authors":3937,"journal":3938,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":3939},595,"Ultrasensitive and Label-Free Detection of Copper Ions by GHK-Modified Asymmetric Nanochannels.","An P, Zhang Z, Yang J, Wang T, Wang Z, Sun CL, Qin C, Li J","Analytical chemistry","10.1021/acs.analchem.3c01174",{"id":3941,"title":3942,"authors":3943,"journal":3944,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":3945},596,"Glycyl-L-histidyl-L-lysine-Cu(2+) attenuates cigarette smoke-induced pulmonary emphysema and inflammation by reducing oxidative stress pathway.","Zhang Q, Yan L, Lu J, Zhou X","Frontiers in molecular biosciences","10.3389/fmolb.2022.925700",{"id":3947,"title":3948,"authors":3949,"journal":3889,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":3950},597,"Behavioral and neuropathological features of Alzheimer's disease are attenuated in 5xFAD mice treated with intranasal GHK peptide.","Tucker M, Liao GY, Park JY, Rosenfeld M, Wezeman J, Mangalindan R, Ratner D, Darvas M, Ladiges W","10.1101/2023.11.20.567908",{"id":3952,"title":3953,"authors":3954,"journal":3859,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":3955},598,"Rigid-flexible nanocarriers loaded with active peptides for antioxidant and anti-inflammatory applications in skin.","Wang Y, Lin J, Yu Z, Cheng J, Cheng J, Cui W","10.1016/j.colsurfb.2024.113772",{"id":3957,"title":3958,"authors":3959,"journal":3960,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":3961},599,"Coassemble dopamine and GHK tripeptide into fluorescent nanoparticles for pH sensing.","Zheng F, Guo J, Khan AJ, Miao P, Zhang F","Luminescence : the journal of biological and chemical luminescence","10.1002/bio.3907",{"id":3963,"title":3964,"authors":3965,"journal":1006,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":3966},600,"Selected Biomarkers Revealed Potential Skin Toxicity Caused by Certain Copper Compounds.","Li H, Toh PZ, Tan JY, Zin MT, Lee CY, Li B, Leolukman M, Bao H, Kang L","10.1038/srep37664",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":3969,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":3970},65,"2026-01-05T22:12:17.262010","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/ghk-cu.webp","340.38","C14H24N6O4·Cu","73589","GHK","Minutes to hours","Topical/SC","130120-56-8","C1=C(NC=N1)C[C@@H](C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCCN)C(=O)[O-])NC(=O)CN.C1=C(NC=N1)C[C@@H](C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCCN)C(=O)[O-])NC(=O)CN.[Cu+2]",[3981,3986,3991,3995,3999],{"name":3982,"dose":3983,"frequency":3984,"route":3985},"Anti-aging skincare","0.5-1% cream","1-2x daily","Topical application",{"name":3987,"dose":3988,"frequency":3989,"route":3990},"Hair growth stimulation","1-2% solution","1x daily","Scalp massage",{"name":3014,"dose":3992,"frequency":3993,"route":3994},"1-2% gel","2-3x daily","Direct application",{"name":3996,"dose":3997,"frequency":3989,"route":3998},"General skin health","0.5% serum","Face and neck",{"name":4000,"dose":4001,"frequency":3989,"route":4002},"Intensive repair","2% cream","Targeted areas",[3635,4004,4005,4006,4007],"Copper peptide","Glycyl-L-histidyl-L-lysine copper(II)","Copper tripeptide","Prezatide copper acetate (topical form)",[4009,3014,4010,4011],"Skin regeneration and anti-aging","Collagen and elastin synthesis","Hair growth",{"human":4013,"animal":4014,"inVitro":4015,"uncertain":4016},"Topical GHK-Cu has been studied in wound-healing and skin applications, and a registered phase 2 trial (NCT07437586) is evaluating a topical GHK-Cu gel (CuHeal) for acute skin wound healing. Peer-reviewed randomized human data remain limited.","Animal models report accelerated wound healing and tissue remodeling with GHK-Cu.","In vitro studies show GHK-Cu stimulates collagen and elastin synthesis and broadly modulates gene expression (a widely cited analysis reports effects on ~4,000 genes) related to extracellular matrix and anti-inflammatory pathways.","Claims of systemic anti-aging, 'rejuvenation' and hair regrowth benefits from injectable use are not supported by clinical trials; most human evidence is topical and modest in scale.",[4018,4022],{"finding":4019,"source":4020,"year":1624,"link":4021,"evidenceLevel":343},"Review of therapeutic peptides for healthy aging highlights GHK-Cu stimulation of collagen and elastin synthesis, the structural proteins that decline progressively with age.","Narrative review (Frontiers in Aging)","https://doi.org/10.3389/fragi.2026.1790247",{"finding":4023,"source":4024,"year":1624,"link":4025,"evidenceLevel":46},"Phase 2 trial (NCT07437586) registered to test topical GHK-Cu gel (CuHeal) for acute skin wound healing; recruiting as of review.","Registered clinical trial (ClinicalTrials.gov)","https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT07437586","Human data are limited to small studies and a recruiting phase 2 trial; much of the literature is narrative-review based; topical vs injectable use must be distinguished — systemic claims are unproven; long-term safety of injected copper peptides is unstudied.","GHK is a natural tripeptide (glycyl-histidyl-lysine) found in human plasma; plasma levels decline with age (early studies report ~200 ng/mL at age 20 vs ~80 ng/mL at age 60). It binds copper(II) and is used topically in cosmetics; pharmacokinetics of injectable GHK-Cu in humans are not well characterized.",[4029,4032],{"question":4030,"answer":4031},"Is GHK-Cu FDA-approved?","No. It is an investigational/research compound; topical copper peptides appear in cosmetics, and the registered wound-healing trial is phase 2.",{"question":4033,"answer":4034},"Does GHK-Cu grow hair?","Some studies suggest hair-related effects, but controlled human data are limited.",{"id":2647,"name":4036,"slug":4037,"description":4038,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":15,"views":2222,"shortDescription":4039,"researchStatus":4040,"peptideBenefits":4041,"benefits":4092,"peptideSideEffects":4113,"sideEffects":4123,"dosage":4127,"mechanism":4128,"safetyNote":148,"athleteWarning":149,"citations":4129,"research":4282,"statsCache":4283,"imageUrl":4286,"molecularWeight":4287,"molecularFormula":4288,"pubchemId":4289,"sequence":4036,"halfLife":1572,"administrationRoute":1795,"casNumber":4290,"smiles":4291,"totalMentions":4284,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"protocols":4292,"aliases":4306,"researchAreas":4310,"evidence":4314,"keyStudies":4318,"limitations":4327,"pharmacology":4328,"faqs":4329,"lastReviewed":359},"KPV","kpv","KPV is a naturally occurring C-terminal tripeptide fragment of alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone (α-MSH) consisting of lysine-proline-valine. Despite lacking melanocortin receptor binding activity, KPV retains potent anti-inflammatory properties through alternative mechanisms including inhibition of NF-κB activation and modulation of inflammatory cytokine production. Research demonstrates KPV reduces inflammation without significant immunosuppression, making it attractive for chronic inflammatory conditions. Studies show efficacy in models of inflammatory bowel disease, colitis, and skin inflammation. The tripeptide may benefit wound healing through its anti-inflammatory effects and has shown protective properties in various tissue injury models. KPV crosses cellular membranes more readily than full-length α-MSH due to its small size. Research indicates potential applications for IBD, dermatological conditions, and systemic inflammatory states. The peptide is generally well-tolerated and can be administered through multiple routes including oral and topical. KPV represents a targeted approach to inflammation modulation without the side effects of broader immunosuppression.","Anti-inflammatory tripeptide for gut and skin inflammation","Research compound - Anti-inflammatory peptide",[4042,4044,4047,4049,4052,4055,4058,4060,4062,4064,4066,4068,4070,4073,4077,4079,4081,4084,4087,4089],{"id":4043,"benefit":3649,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},656,{"id":4045,"benefit":4046,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},657,"Antimicrobial",{"id":4048,"benefit":3014,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},658,{"id":4050,"benefit":4051,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},659,"Treats IBD/IBS.",{"id":235,"benefit":4053,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":4054,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},"Wound Healing: Corneal, diabetic wounds","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16965771/",{"id":231,"benefit":4056,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":4057,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},"IBD/Colitis: PepT1-mediated NF-κB inhibition; earlier recovery","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18092346/",{"id":4059,"benefit":3649,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},780,{"id":4061,"benefit":4046,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},781,{"id":4063,"benefit":3014,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},782,{"id":4065,"benefit":4051,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},783,{"id":3952,"benefit":4067,"benefitCategory":3690,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},"Anti-inflammatory effects in IBD, airway, and ocular inflammation",{"id":3957,"benefit":4069,"benefitCategory":3683,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},"Corneal wound healing (100% re-epithelialization at 60h)",{"id":3963,"benefit":4071,"benefitCategory":4072,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},"Antimicrobial against S. aureus, E. coli, Candida","antimicrobial",{"id":4074,"benefit":4075,"benefitCategory":4076,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},601,"NF-κB inhibition via PepT1-mediated transport","mechanism",{"id":4078,"benefit":3286,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},366,{"id":4080,"benefit":884,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},367,{"id":4082,"benefit":4083,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},368,"Gut health",{"id":4085,"benefit":4086,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},369,"Skin health",{"id":4088,"benefit":3009,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},370,{"id":4090,"benefit":4091,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},371,"Tissue protection",[4093,4094,4095,4096,4097,4098,4099,4100,4101,4102,4103,4104,4105,4106,4107,4108,4109,4110,4111,4112],{"id":4043,"benefit":3649,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},{"id":4045,"benefit":4046,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},{"id":4048,"benefit":3014,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},{"id":4050,"benefit":4051,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},{"id":235,"benefit":4053,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":4054,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":231,"benefit":4056,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":4057,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":4059,"benefit":3649,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},{"id":4061,"benefit":4046,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},{"id":4063,"benefit":3014,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},{"id":4065,"benefit":4051,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},{"id":3952,"benefit":4067,"benefitCategory":3690,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},{"id":3957,"benefit":4069,"benefitCategory":3683,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},{"id":3963,"benefit":4071,"benefitCategory":4072,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},{"id":4074,"benefit":4075,"benefitCategory":4076,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},{"id":4078,"benefit":3286,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":4080,"benefit":884,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":4082,"benefit":4083,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":4085,"benefit":4086,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":4088,"benefit":3009,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":4090,"benefit":4091,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},[4114,4118,4120],{"id":4115,"sideEffect":4116,"description":23,"severity":4117,"frequency":4117,"source":24,"sourceType":24,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":23,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},631,"No significant adverse effects reported; lacks pigmentary effects of full α-MSH","none",{"id":4119,"sideEffect":2340,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},248,{"id":4121,"sideEffect":4122,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},249,"Minimal systemic effects",[4124,4125,4126],{"id":4115,"sideEffect":4116,"description":23,"severity":4117,"frequency":4117,"source":24,"sourceType":24,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":23,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":4119,"sideEffect":2340,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":4121,"sideEffect":4122,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"200-500mcg daily","Anti-inflammatory peptide derived from alpha-MSH",[4130,4135,4140,4146,4151,4157,4163,4169,4175,4181,4187,4192,4198,4204,4210,4216,4222,4227,4232,4237,4242,4248,4254,4260,4265,4271,4277],{"id":3667,"title":4131,"authors":155,"journal":4132,"year":157,"citationType":158,"doi":4133,"researchPaperId":4134},"KPV: Alpha-MSH Fragment for Inflammatory Bowel Disease","Pharmaceuticals","10.3390/ph18010087","pubmed_41209547",{"id":4136,"title":4137,"authors":155,"journal":829,"year":458,"citationType":430,"doi":4138,"researchPaperId":4139},64,"KPV Peptide in Colitis: Anti-inflammatory Mechanisms","10.1053/j.gastro.2024.06.018","pubmed_39252648",{"id":4141,"title":4142,"authors":4143,"journal":4144,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":4145},1000,"A KPV-binding double-network hydrogel restores gut mucosal barrier in an inflamed colon.","Zhao Y, Xue P, Lin G, Tong M, Yang J, Zhang Y, Ran K, Zhuge D, Yao Q, Xu H","Acta biomaterialia","10.1016/j.actbio.2022.02.039",{"id":4147,"title":4148,"authors":4149,"journal":2110,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":4150},1001,"KPV and RAPA Self-Assembled into Carrier-Free Nanodrugs for Vascular Calcification Therapy.","Zhang L, Li D, Aierken Y, Zhang J, Liu Z, Lin Z, Jiang L, Li Q, Wu Y, Liu Y","10.1002/adhm.202402320",{"id":4152,"title":4153,"authors":4154,"journal":4155,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":4156},1002,"International Recommendations for the Diagnosis and Management of Patients With Adrenoleukodystrophy: A Consensus-Based Approach.","Engelen M, van Ballegoij WJC, Mallack EJ, Van Haren KP, Köhler W, Salsano E, van Trotsenburg ASP, Mochel F, Sevin C, Regelmann MO, Tritos NA, Halper A, Lachmann RH, Davison J, Raymond GV, Lund TC, Orchard PJ, Kuehl JS, Lindemans CA, Caruso P, Turk BR, Moser AB, Vaz FM, Ferdinandusse S, Kemp S, Fatemi A, Eichler FS, Huffnagel IC","Neurology","10.1212/WNL.0000000000201374",{"id":4158,"title":4159,"authors":4160,"journal":4161,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":4162},1003,"Transdermal Iontophoretic Delivery of Lysine-Proline-Valine (KPV) Peptide Across Microporated Human Skin.","Pawar K, Kolli CS, Rangari VK, Babu RJ","Journal of pharmaceutical sciences","10.1016/j.xphs.2017.03.017",{"id":4164,"title":4165,"authors":4166,"journal":4167,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":4168},1004,"Hydrocortisone to Improve Survival without Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia.","Watterberg KL, Walsh MC, Li L, Chawla S, D'Angio CT, Goldberg RN, Hintz SR, Laughon MM, Yoder BA, Kennedy KA, McDavid GE, Backstrom-Lacy C, Das A, Crawford MM, Keszler M, Sokol GM, Poindexter BB, Ambalavanan N, Hibbs AM, Truog WE, Schmidt B, Wyckoff MH, Khan AM, Garg M, Chess PR, Reynolds AM, Moallem M, Bell EF, Meyer LR, Patel RM, Van Meurs KP, Cotten CM, McGowan EC, Hines AC, Merhar S, Peralta-Carcelen M, Wilson-Costello DE, Kilbride HW, DeMauro SB, Heyne RJ, Mosquera RA, Natarajan G, Purdy IB, Lowe JR, Maitre NL, Harmon HM, Hogden LA, Adams-Chapman I, Winter S, Malcolm WF, Higgins RD, Eunice Kennedy Shriver NICHD Neonatal Research Network","The New England journal of medicine","10.1056/NEJMoa2114897",{"id":4170,"title":4171,"authors":4172,"journal":4173,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":4174},1005,"Self-Cross-Linked Hydrogel of Cysteamine-Grafted γ-Polyglutamic Acid Stabilized Tripeptide KPV for Alleviating TNBS-Induced Ulcerative Colitis in Rats.","Sun J, Xue P, Liu J, Huang L, Lin G, Ran K, Yang J, Lu C, Zhao YZ, Xu HL","ACS biomaterials science & engineering","10.1021/acsbiomaterials.1c00792",{"id":4176,"title":4177,"authors":4178,"journal":4179,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":4180},1006,"Orally Targeted Delivery of Tripeptide KPV via Hyaluronic Acid-Functionalized Nanoparticles Efficiently Alleviates Ulcerative Colitis.","Xiao B, Xu Z, Viennois E, Zhang Y, Zhang Z, Zhang M, Han MK, Kang Y, Merlin D","Molecular therapy : the journal of the American Society of Gene Therapy","10.1016/j.ymthe.2016.11.020",{"id":4182,"title":4183,"authors":4184,"journal":4185,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":4186},1007,"Vimentin is required for tumor progression and metastasis in a mouse model of non-small cell lung cancer.","Berr AL, Wiese K, Dos Santos G, Koch CM, Anekalla KR, Kidd M, Davis JM, Cheng Y, Hu YS, Ridge KM","Oncogene","10.1038/s41388-023-02703-9",{"id":4188,"title":4189,"authors":4190,"journal":829,"year":229,"citationType":167,"doi":4191},1008,"PepT1-mediated tripeptide KPV uptake reduces intestinal inflammation.","Dalmasso G, Charrier-Hisamuddin L, Nguyen HT, Yan Y, Sitaraman S, Merlin D","10.1053/j.gastro.2007.10.026",{"id":4193,"title":4194,"authors":4195,"journal":4196,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":4197},1009,"Lysine-Proline-Valine peptide mitigates fine dust-induced keratinocyte apoptosis and inflammation by regulating oxidative stress and modulating the MAPK/NF-κB pathway.","Sung J, Ju SY, Park S, Jung WK, Je JY, Lee SJ","Tissue & cell","10.1016/j.tice.2025.102837",{"id":4199,"title":4200,"authors":4201,"journal":4202,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":4203},1010,"Digital health technology in clinical trials.","Mittermaier M, Venkatesh KP, Kvedar JC","NPJ digital medicine","10.1038/s41746-023-00841-8",{"id":4205,"title":4206,"authors":4207,"journal":4208,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":4209},1011,"In situ mucoadhesive hydrogel capturing tripeptide KPV: the anti-inflammatory, antibacterial and repairing effect on chemotherapy-induced oral mucositis.","Shao W, Chen R, Lin G, Ran K, Zhang Y, Yang J, Pan H, Shangguan J, Zhao Y, Xu H","Biomaterials science","10.1039/d1bm01466h",{"id":4211,"title":4212,"authors":4213,"journal":4214,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":4215},1012,"Stability-indicating HPLC assay for lysine-proline-valine (KPV) in aqueous solutions and skin homogenates.","Pawar KR, Mulabagal V, Smith F, Kolli CS, Rangari VK, Babu RJ","Biomedical chromatography : BMC","10.1002/bmc.3347",{"id":4217,"title":4218,"authors":4219,"journal":4220,"year":229,"citationType":167,"doi":4221},1013,"Melanocortin-derived tripeptide KPV has anti-inflammatory potential in murine models of inflammatory bowel disease.","Kannengiesser K, Maaser C, Heidemann J, Luegering A, Ross M, Brzoska T, Bohm M, Luger TA, Domschke W, Kucharzik T","Inflammatory bowel diseases","10.1002/ibd.20334",{"id":4223,"title":4224,"authors":4225,"journal":4167,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":4226},1014,"Trial of Erythropoietin for Hypoxic-Ischemic Encephalopathy in Newborns.","Wu YW, Comstock BA, Gonzalez FF, Mayock DE, Goodman AM, Maitre NL, Chang T, Van Meurs KP, Lampland AL, Bendel-Stenzel E, Mathur AM, Wu TW, Riley D, Mietzsch U, Chalak L, Flibotte J, Weitkamp JH, Ahmad KA, Yanowitz TD, Baserga M, Poindexter BB, Rogers EE, Lowe JR, Kuban KCK, O'Shea TM, Wisnowski JL, McKinstry RC, Bluml S, Bonifacio S, Benninger KL, Rao R, Smyser CD, Sokol GM, Merhar S, Schreiber MD, Glass HC, Heagerty PJ, Juul SE, HEAL Consortium","10.1056/NEJMoa2119660",{"id":4228,"title":4229,"authors":4230,"journal":1990,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":4231},1015,"Structural modification of the tripeptide KPV by reductive \"glycoalkylation\" of the lysine residue.","Songok AC, Panta P, Doerrler WT, Macnaughtan MA, Taylor CM","10.1371/journal.pone.0199686",{"id":4233,"title":4234,"authors":4235,"journal":816,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":4236},1016,"Peptide Receptor-Targeted Fluorescent Probe: Visualization and Discrimination between Chronic and Acute Ulcerative Colitis.","Zeng M, Shao A, Li H, Tang Y, Li Q, Guo Z, Wu C, Cheng Y, Tian H, Zhu WH","10.1021/acsami.7b00936",{"id":4238,"title":4239,"authors":4240,"journal":829,"year":1105,"citationType":167,"doi":4241},1017,"Drug-loaded nanoparticles targeted to the colon with polysaccharide hydrogel reduce colitis in a mouse model.","Laroui H, Dalmasso G, Nguyen HT, Yan Y, Sitaraman SV, Merlin D","10.1053/j.gastro.2009.11.003",{"id":4243,"title":4244,"authors":4245,"journal":4246,"year":173,"citationType":167,"doi":4247},1018,"Dissection of the anti-inflammatory effect of the core and C-terminal (KPV) alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone peptides.","Getting SJ, Schiöth HB, Perretti M","The Journal of pharmacology and experimental therapeutics","10.1124/jpet.103.051623",{"id":4249,"title":4250,"authors":4251,"journal":4252,"year":249,"citationType":167,"doi":4253},1019,"alpha-Melanocyte-stimulating hormone, MSH 11-13 KPV and adrenocorticotropic hormone signalling in human keratinocyte cells.","Elliott RJ, Szabo M, Wagner MJ, Kemp EH, MacNeil S, Haycock JW","The Journal of investigative dermatology","10.1111/j.0022-202X.2004.22404.x",{"id":4255,"title":4256,"authors":4257,"journal":4258,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":4259},1020,"NLRP3 autophagic degradation disruption in melanocytes contributes to vitiligo development.","Zeng K, Zhu Y, Han Z, Xiong S, Zhao Y, Xiao Z, Xie Y, Jin S, Dong T, Lan L, Liu W, Du Y, Guan C, Yu X, Song X","Cell death and differentiation","10.1038/s41418-025-01578-5",{"id":4261,"title":4262,"authors":4263,"journal":4264,"year":1196,"citationType":167},1021,"Inhibition of cellular and systemic inflammation cues in human bronchial epithelial cells by melanocortin-related peptides: mechanism of KPV action and a role for MC3R agonists.","Land SC","International journal of physiology, pathophysiology and pharmacology",{"id":4266,"title":4267,"authors":4268,"journal":4269,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":4270},1022,"Tubulointerstitial nephritis and uveitis.","Pakzad-Vaezi K, Pepple KL","Current opinion in ophthalmology","10.1097/ICU.0000000000000421",{"id":4272,"title":4273,"authors":4274,"journal":4275,"year":3074,"citationType":167,"doi":4276},1023,"Effects of the COOH-terminal tripeptide alpha-MSH(11-13) on corneal epithelial wound healing: role of nitric oxide.","Bonfiglio V, Camillieri G, Avitabile T, Leggio GM, Drago F","Experimental eye research","10.1016/j.exer.2006.07.014",{"id":4278,"title":4279,"authors":4280,"journal":4155,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":4281},1024,"Association of EEG Background and Neurodevelopmental Outcome in Neonates With Hypoxic-Ischemic Encephalopathy Receiving Hypothermia.","Glass HC, Numis AL, Comstock BA, Gonzalez FF, Mietzsch U, Bonifacio SL, Massey S, Thomas C, Natarajan N, Mayock DE, Sokol GM, Van Meurs KP, Ahmad KA, Maitre N, Heagerty PJ, Juul SE, Wu YW, Wusthoff CJ","10.1212/WNL.0000000000207744",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":4284,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":4285},10,"2026-01-05T22:12:09.594697","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/kpv.webp","362.43","C16H27N5O4","9919654","88768-11-0","C1=CC=C(C=C1)CCCC(=O)C(=O)O",[4293,4296,4300,4303],{"name":4294,"dose":4295,"frequency":1801,"route":311},"General Anti-Inflammatory","200-300mcg",{"name":4297,"dose":4298,"frequency":4299,"route":311},"Active Inflammation","250mcg","Twice daily",{"name":4301,"dose":4302,"frequency":1801,"route":311},"Autoimmune Support","500mcg",{"name":4304,"dose":4302,"frequency":4305,"route":311},"Acute Flare-ups","Twice daily for 1 week then reduce",[4036,4307,4308,4309],"Lys-Pro-Val","alpha-MSH (11-13)","C-terminal tripeptide of alpha-MSH",[4311,4312,4313],"Intestinal inflammation / IBD","Mucosal healing and PepT1 transport","Anti-inflammatory peptide research",{"human":23,"animal":4315,"inVitro":4316,"uncertain":4317},"In mouse models, PepT1-mediated uptake of KPV reduced intestinal inflammation (Gastroenterology 2008, PMID 18061177) and showed therapeutic benefit in colitis-associated cancer models (PMID 27458604), supporting anti-inflammatory activity in gut inflammation.","Cell-based assays show KPV is transported by the intestinal di/tripeptide transporter PepT1 and modulates inflammatory signaling/cytokine responses (e.g., reduced pro-inflammatory mediators) without binding melanocortin receptors.","No human clinical trials of KPV have been identified; systemic/clinical relevance, dosing, and delivery are unproven, and much of the surrounding literature is promotional rather than peer-reviewed.",[4319,4323],{"finding":4320,"source":4321,"year":229,"link":4322,"evidenceLevel":50},"PepT1-mediated uptake of the tripeptide KPV reduced intestinal inflammation in a mouse model of colitis.","Preclinical study (Gastroenterology)","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18061177/",{"finding":4324,"source":4325,"year":1049,"link":4326,"evidenceLevel":50},"In a murine model, PepT1 promoted colitis-associated cancer and KPV administration reduced tumorigenesis, suggesting therapeutic potential in IBD-associated carcinogenesis.","Preclinical study (mouse model)","https://europepmc.org/article/MED/27458604","All evidence is preclinical (mouse and cell models); no human trials, no clinical pharmacokinetics, and no approved formulation. Claims about skin/wound applications rely on alpha-MSH extrapolations rather than direct KPV human data.","Natural tripeptide (Lys-Pro-Val), the C-terminal fragment of alpha-MSH; taken up across intestinal epithelium via the PepT1 di/tripeptide transporter; reported to suppress inflammatory cytokine signaling. Research-stage only.",[4330,4333],{"question":4331,"answer":4332},"Has KPV been studied in people with IBD?","No published human trials were identified; current evidence comes from mouse colitis models and in-vitro cell studies.",{"question":4334,"answer":4335},"How does KPV work if it doesn't bind melanocortin receptors?","Unlike full-length alpha-MSH, KPV's anti-inflammatory effects appear mediated through PepT1-dependent uptake and downstream modulation of inflammatory signaling rather than melanocortin receptor activation.",{"id":4337,"name":4338,"slug":4339,"description":4340,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":15,"views":2486,"shortDescription":4341,"peptideBenefits":4342,"benefits":4356,"peptideSideEffects":4361,"sideEffects":4368,"dosage":4371,"mechanism":4372,"safetyNote":4373,"citations":4374,"research":4533,"statsCache":4534,"imageUrl":4536,"molecularWeight":4537,"molecularFormula":4538,"pubchemId":4539,"sequence":538,"halfLife":4540,"administrationRoute":4541,"casNumber":4542,"smiles":4543,"totalMentions":8,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"aliases":4544,"researchAreas":4548,"evidence":4553,"keyStudies":4557,"limitations":4566,"pharmacology":4567,"faqs":4568,"lastReviewed":359},58,"Larazotide","larazotide","Larazotide (AT-1001, Larazotide Acetate) is a synthetic octapeptide designed to regulate intestinal tight junction permeability by antagonizing zonulin, the only known physiological modulator of intestinal tight junctions. Research demonstrates larazotide reduces intestinal permeability (\"leaky gut\") by preventing tight junction disassembly triggered by gluten and other inflammatory stimuli. Clinical trials have evaluated larazotide for celiac disease, showing reduction in gluten-induced symptoms and intestinal permeability markers in patients inadvertently exposed to gluten. The peptide acts locally in the gastrointestinal tract with minimal systemic absorption. Studies indicate potential applications for other conditions involving intestinal barrier dysfunction including inflammatory bowel disease, type 1 diabetes, and autoimmune disorders linked to increased intestinal permeability. Larazotide represents a novel mechanism-based approach targeting the intestinal barrier as a therapeutic intervention point. Phase 3 clinical trials for celiac disease have been conducted with mixed results, and development continues.","Tight junction regulator for intestinal permeability and leaky gut",[4343,4347,4350,4353],{"id":4344,"benefit":4345,"benefitCategory":4346,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},413,"Intestinal barrier restoration","Gut Health",{"id":4348,"benefit":4349,"benefitCategory":4346,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},414,"Celiac disease symptom improvement",{"id":4351,"benefit":4352,"benefitCategory":4346,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},415,"Tight junction regulation",{"id":4354,"benefit":4355,"benefitCategory":4346,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},416,"Gluten sensitivity support",[4357,4358,4359,4360],{"id":4344,"benefit":4345,"benefitCategory":4346,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":4348,"benefit":4349,"benefitCategory":4346,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":4351,"benefit":4352,"benefitCategory":4346,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":4354,"benefit":4355,"benefitCategory":4346,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},[4362,4365],{"id":4363,"sideEffect":4364,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},250,"Well-tolerated in clinical trials",{"id":4366,"sideEffect":4367,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":675,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},251,"GI discomfort",[4369,4370],{"id":4363,"sideEffect":4364,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":4366,"sideEffect":4367,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":675,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"0.5-12mg, taken before meals","Tight junction regulator for gut barrier function and intestinal health","Investigational compound in Phase III trials for celiac disease. Shows promise for gut barrier function.",[4375,4379,4385,4391,4396,4402,4408,4414,4419,4424,4430,4436,4442,4448,4454,4460,4465,4471,4477,4482,4488,4494,4500,4505,4510,4516,4521,4527],{"id":305,"title":4376,"authors":4377,"journal":1440,"year":157,"citationType":44,"doi":4378},"Is There a Future Without Gluten Restrictions for Celiac Patients? Update on Current Treatments.","Marina Girbal-González, Francisco J Pérez-Cano","10.1039/D1FO00490E",{"id":4380,"title":4381,"authors":4382,"journal":4383,"year":157,"citationType":44,"doi":4384},101,"Viral spike antigen clearance and augmented recovery in children with post-COVID multisystem inflammatory syndrome treated with larazotide.","Lael M Yonker, Abigail S Kane, Zoe Swank, Lena Papadakis, Victoria Kenyon","Science translational medicine","10.1126/scitranslmed.adu4284",{"id":4386,"title":4387,"authors":4388,"journal":4389,"year":157,"citationType":44,"doi":4390},102,"Coeliac disease and the intestinal barrier: mechanisms of disruption and strategies for restoration.","John A Damianos, Adam Bledsoe, Michael Camilleri, Joseph A Murray","Gut","10.1136/gutjnl-2025-335373",{"id":3969,"title":4392,"authors":155,"journal":829,"year":157,"citationType":4393,"doi":4394,"researchPaperId":4395},"Larazotide Acetate for Celiac Disease: Phase 3 Results","RCT Phase III","10.1053/j.gastro.2024.11.015","pubmed_41153766",{"id":4397,"title":4398,"authors":4399,"journal":4400,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":4401},1025,"Larazotide acetate: a pharmacological peptide approach to tight junction regulation.","Slifer ZM, Krishnan BR, Madan J, Blikslager AT","American journal of physiology. Gastrointestinal and liver physiology","10.1152/ajpgi.00386.2020",{"id":4403,"title":4404,"authors":4405,"journal":4406,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":4407},1026,"Larazotide acetate for treatment of celiac disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.","Hoilat GJ, Altowairqi AK, Ayas MF, Alhaddab NT, Alnujaidi RA, Alharbi HA, Alyahyawi N, Kamal A, Alhabeeb H, Albazee E, Almustanyir S, Abu-Zaid A","Clinics and research in hepatology and gastroenterology","10.1016/j.clinre.2021.101782",{"id":4409,"title":4410,"authors":4411,"journal":4412,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":4413},1027,"The Therapeutic use of the Zonulin Inhibitor AT-1001 (Larazotide) for a Variety of Acute and Chronic Inflammatory Diseases.","Troisi J, Venutolo G, Terracciano C, Carri MD, Di Micco S, Landolfi A, Fasano A","Current medicinal chemistry","10.2174/0929867328666210104110053",{"id":4415,"title":4416,"authors":4417,"journal":516,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":4418},1028,"Zonulin as a Potential Therapeutic Target in Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis Disorders: Encouraging Results and Emerging Questions.","Veres-Székely A, Szász C, Pap D, Szebeni B, Bokrossy P, Vannay Á","10.3390/ijms24087548",{"id":4420,"title":4421,"authors":4422,"journal":1990,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":4423},1029,"Larazotide acetate induces recovery of ischemia-injured porcine jejunum via repair of tight junctions.","Slifer ZM, Hernandez L, Pridgen TA, Carlson AR, Messenger KM, Madan J, Krishnan BR, Laumas S, Blikslager AT","10.1371/journal.pone.0250165",{"id":4425,"title":4426,"authors":4427,"journal":4428,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":4429},1030,"The potential utility of tight junction regulation in celiac disease: focus on larazotide acetate.","Khaleghi S, Ju JM, Lamba A, Murray JA","Therapeutic advances in gastroenterology","10.1177/1756283X15616576",{"id":4431,"title":4432,"authors":4433,"journal":4434,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":4435},1031,"Targeting zonulin and intestinal epithelial barrier function to prevent onset of arthritis.","Tajik N, Frech M, Schulz O, Schälter F, Lucas S, Azizov V, Dürholz K, Steffen F, Omata Y, Rings A, Bertog M, Rizzo A, Iljazovic A, Basic M, Kleyer A, Culemann S, Krönke G, Luo Y, Überla K, Gaipl US, Frey B, Strowig T, Sarter K, Bischoff SC, Wirtz S, Cañete JD, Ciccia F, Schett G, Zaiss MM","Nature communications","10.1038/s41467-020-15831-7",{"id":4437,"title":4438,"authors":4439,"journal":4440,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":4441},1032,"Zonulin Antagonist, Larazotide (AT1001), As an Adjuvant Treatment for Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children: A Case Series.","Yonker LM, Swank Z, Gilboa T, Senussi Y, Kenyon V, Papadakis L, Boribong BP, Carroll RW, Walt DR, Fasano A","Critical care explorations","10.1097/CCE.0000000000000641",{"id":4443,"title":4444,"authors":4445,"journal":4446,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":4447},1033,"Targeting endothelial tight junctions to predict and protect thoracic aortic aneurysm and dissection.","Yang X, Xu C, Yao F, Ding Q, Liu H, Luo C, Wang D, Huang J, Li Z, Shen Y, Yang W, Li Z, Yu F, Fu Y, Wang L, Ma Q, Zhu J, Xu F, Cong X, Kong W","European heart journal","10.1093/eurheartj/ehac823",{"id":4449,"title":4450,"authors":4451,"journal":4452,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":4453},1034,"The PAR2 Antagonist Larazotide Can Mitigate Acute Histamine-Stimulated Epithelial Barrier Disruption in Keratinocytes: A Potential Adjunct Treatment for Atopic Dermatitis.","Glinka DM, MacGregor GG","JID innovations : skin science from molecules to population health","10.1016/j.xjidi.2025.100369",{"id":4455,"title":4456,"authors":4457,"journal":4458,"year":260,"citationType":167,"doi":4459},1035,"Larazotide acetate in patients with coeliac disease undergoing a gluten challenge: a randomised placebo-controlled study.","Kelly CP, Green PH, Murray JA, Dimarino A, Colatrella A, Leffler DA, Alexander T, Arsenescu R, Leon F, Jiang JG, Arterburn LA, Paterson BM, Fedorak RN, Larazotide Acetate Celiac Disease Study Group","Alimentary pharmacology & therapeutics","10.1111/apt.12147",{"id":4461,"title":4462,"authors":4463,"journal":3059,"year":1196,"citationType":167,"doi":4464},1036,"Larazotide acetate promotes tight junction assembly in epithelial cells.","Gopalakrishnan S, Tripathi A, Tamiz AP, Alkan SS, Pandey NB","10.1016/j.peptides.2012.02.016",{"id":4466,"title":4467,"authors":4468,"journal":4469,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":4470},1037,"Tight junction regulation in celiac disease: role of larazotide acetate.","Armandi A, Pellicano R, Caviglia GP","Minerva gastroenterology","10.23736/S2724-5985.21.02838-5",{"id":4472,"title":4473,"authors":4474,"journal":4475,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":4476},1038,"Larazotide Acetate Protects the Intestinal Mucosal Barrier from Anoxia/Reoxygenation Injury via Various Cellular Mechanisms.","Kim J, Madan JP, Laumas S, Krishnan BR, Jin Y","Biomedicines","10.3390/biomedicines13102483",{"id":4478,"title":4479,"authors":4480,"journal":3059,"year":1196,"citationType":167,"doi":4481},1039,"Larazotide acetate regulates epithelial tight junctions in vitro and in vivo.","Gopalakrishnan S, Durai M, Kitchens K, Tamiz AP, Somerville R, Ginski M, Paterson BM, Murray JA, Verdu EF, Alkan SS, Pandey NB","10.1016/j.peptides.2012.02.015",{"id":4483,"title":4484,"authors":4485,"journal":4486,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":4487},1040,"Ameliorative Effects of Larazotide Acetate on Intestinal Permeability and Bacterial Translocation in Acute Pancreatitis Model in Rats.","Karahan D, Harputluoglu MMM, Gul M, Gunduz A, Ozyalin F, İnceoğlu F, Tikici D, Yılmaz İ, Satilmis B","Digestive diseases and sciences","10.1007/s10620-024-08326-8",{"id":4489,"title":4490,"authors":4491,"journal":4492,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":4493},1041,"Effects of larazotide acetate, a tight junction regulator, on the liver and intestinal damage in acute liver failure in rats.","Caliskan AR, Gul M, Yılmaz I, Otlu B, Uremis N, Uremis MM, Kilicaslan I, Gul S, Tikici D, Saglam O, Yalcin M, Demirel U, Harputluoglu M","Human & experimental toxicology","10.1177/09603271211058882",{"id":4495,"title":4496,"authors":4497,"journal":4498,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":4499},1042,"Antibacterial hyaluronic acid hydrogel with sustained release of larazotide as effective colitis treatment.","Yu F, Chen Y, Ouyang S, Tong B, Jiang Z, Wang J, Ding B, Mao K, Wu W, Xu H","Journal of controlled release : official journal of the Controlled Release Society","10.1016/j.jconrel.2025.114205",{"id":4501,"title":4502,"authors":4503,"journal":829,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":4504},1043,"Larazotide acetate for persistent symptoms of celiac disease despite a gluten-free diet: a randomized controlled trial.","Leffler DA, Kelly CP, Green PH, Fedorak RN, DiMarino A, Perrow W, Rasmussen H, Wang C, Bercik P, Bachir NM, Murray JA","10.1053/j.gastro.2015.02.008",{"id":4506,"title":4507,"authors":4508,"journal":1990,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":4509},1044,"In vivo assessment of a delayed release formulation of larazotide acetate indicated for celiac disease using a porcine model.","Enomoto H, Yeatts J, Carbajal L, Krishnan BR, Madan JP, Laumas S, Blikslager AT, Messenger KM","10.1371/journal.pone.0249179",{"id":4511,"title":4512,"authors":4513,"journal":4514,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":4515},1045,"In silico Analysis Revealed Potential Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Main Protease Activity by the Zonulin Inhibitor Larazotide Acetate.","Di Micco S, Musella S, Scala MC, Sala M, Campiglia P, Bifulco G, Fasano A","Frontiers in chemistry","10.3389/fchem.2020.628609",{"id":4517,"title":4518,"authors":4519,"journal":516,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":4520},1046,"Peptide Derivatives of the Zonulin Inhibitor Larazotide (AT1001) as Potential Anti SARS-CoV-2: Molecular Modelling, Synthesis and Bioactivity Evaluation.","Di Micco S, Musella S, Sala M, Scala MC, Andrei G, Snoeck R, Bifulco G, Campiglia P, Fasano A","10.3390/ijms22179427",{"id":4522,"title":4523,"authors":4524,"journal":4525,"year":1196,"citationType":167,"doi":4526},1047,"A randomized, double-blind study of larazotide acetate to prevent the activation of celiac disease during gluten challenge.","Leffler DA, Kelly CP, Abdallah HZ, Colatrella AM, Harris LA, Leon F, Arterburn LA, Paterson BM, Lan ZH, Murray JA","The American journal of gastroenterology","10.1038/ajg.2012.211",{"id":4528,"title":4529,"authors":4530,"journal":4531,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":4532},1048,"Preventive effects of Larazotide acetate (AT-1001) on non-alcoholic fatty liver diseases (NAFLD) in a mouse model.","Huang YC, Chiang Chiau JS, Cheng ML, Lee HC, Chan WT, Chang SW, Chen YC, Yeung CY, Jiang CB","Pediatrics and neonatology","10.1016/j.pedneo.2025.01.016",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":8,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":4535},"2026-01-05T22:11:59.479829","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/larazotide.webp","912.0","C40H65N13O12","9810532","Short (oral peptide)","Oral","258818-34-7","CC(C)C[C@@H](C(=O)N[C@@H](C(C)C)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCC(=O)N)C(=O)N1CCC[C@H]1C(=O)NCC(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@H](C(C)C)NC(=O)CNC(=O)CN",[4545,4546,4547],"Larazotide acetate","AT-1001","INN-202",[4549,4550,4551,4552],"Celiac disease","Intestinal tight junction modulation","Gluten-related intestinal permeability","Autoimmune enteropathy",{"human":4554,"animal":4555,"inVitro":4556,"uncertain":23},"A phase 2b randomized controlled trial (Gastroenterology 2015) in adults with celiac disease on a gluten-free diet found larazotide 0.5 mg reduced gluten-induced intestinal permeability and symptoms vs placebo; higher doses showed no benefit. The phase 3 program was discontinued after disappointing interim results (2023).","Preclinical studies show larazotide prevents gliadin-induced opening of intestinal tight junctions and increases in intestinal permeability.","In vitro studies demonstrate inhibition of zonulin-mediated tight junction disassembly in intestinal epithelial monolayers.",[4558,4562],{"finding":4559,"source":4560,"year":1516,"link":4561,"evidenceLevel":46},"Larazotide 0.5 mg significantly reduced gluten-induced intestinal permeability and symptoms versus placebo in celiac patients on a gluten-free diet; higher doses were not superior.","Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 2b trial (Gastroenterology)","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25683116/",{"finding":4563,"source":4564,"year":478,"link":4565,"evidenceLevel":46},"Phase 3 trial of larazotide in celiac disease was discontinued after an interim analysis showed disappointing efficacy results.","Industry announcement / phase 3 interim results (9 Meters Biopharma)","https://www.pharmalive.com/disappointing-results-end-9-meters-phase-iii-trial-for-celiac-treatment/","No approved therapy; the phase 3 failure suggests limited clinical efficacy; effects on mucosal healing (vs symptoms) were not established; development was discontinued, so no further trials are planned by the sponsor.","Synthetic octapeptide modeled on the zonula occludens toxin (Zot) that inhibits paracellular permeability by modulating intestinal tight junctions. Administered orally. Clinical pharmacokinetics reported in trial publications; not an approved drug.",[4569,4572],{"question":4570,"answer":4571},"Does larazotide cure celiac disease?","No. It was investigated as an adjunct to the gluten-free diet to reduce gluten-induced permeability and symptoms; it is not a cure, and the phase 3 program was discontinued.",{"question":4573,"answer":4574},"Is larazotide available?","Not approved; phase 3 development was halted (2023).",{"id":4136,"name":4576,"slug":4577,"description":4578,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":28,"views":4579,"shortDescription":4580,"researchStatus":4581,"peptideBenefits":4582,"benefits":4612,"peptideSideEffects":4625,"sideEffects":4641,"dosage":4649,"mechanism":4650,"safetyNote":148,"athleteWarning":149,"chemicalMakeup":4651,"citations":4652,"research":4941,"statsCache":4942,"imageUrl":4944,"molecularWeight":4945,"molecularFormula":4946,"pubchemId":4947,"sequence":4948,"halfLife":1572,"administrationRoute":4949,"casNumber":4950,"smiles":4951,"totalMentions":2222,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"protocols":4952,"aliases":4975,"researchAreas":4980,"evidence":4985,"keyStudies":4990,"limitations":4999,"pharmacology":5000,"faqs":5001,"lastReviewed":359},"LL-37","ll-37","LL-37 is the only cathelicidin-derived antimicrobial peptide in humans, processed from the C-terminus of the precursor protein hCAP18 (human cationic antimicrobial protein 18). This 37-amino acid peptide beginning with two leucines represents a critical component of innate immunity found in neutrophils, epithelial cells, and various body fluids. LL-37 exhibits broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity against bacteria, fungi, and viruses through membrane disruption and immunomodulatory mechanisms. Beyond direct antimicrobial effects, research demonstrates LL-37 promotes wound healing, stimulates angiogenesis, modulates inflammatory responses, and influences adaptive immunity. The peptide can neutralize bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS), reducing inflammatory signaling. Studies indicate potential applications in wound healing, infection control, and inflammatory conditions. LL-37 expression is induced by vitamin D, linking vitamin D status to immune function. Dysregulation of LL-37 has been implicated in various conditions including rosacea, psoriasis, and atherosclerosis, highlighting its complex role in health and disease.",16,"Antimicrobial peptide with immune and healing properties","Research compound - Antimicrobial peptide",[4583,4586,4589,4591,4593,4595,4597,4600,4603,4605,4607,4610],{"id":221,"benefit":4584,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":4585,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},"Antimicrobial: Broad-spectrum against ESKAPE pathogens","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36177621/",{"id":226,"benefit":4587,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":4588,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},"Sepsis Protection: Multiple protective mechanisms","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32825174/",{"id":3839,"benefit":4590,"benefitCategory":3683,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},"68% mean ulcer area decrease at 0.5 mg/mL",{"id":3844,"benefit":4592,"benefitCategory":3683,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},"Enhanced granulation in diabetic foot ulcers",{"id":3850,"benefit":4594,"benefitCategory":3683,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},"Significant improvement in large ulcers (≥10 cm²)",{"id":3856,"benefit":4596,"benefitCategory":4072,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},"Broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity",{"id":4598,"benefit":4599,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},360,"Immune enhancement",{"id":4601,"benefit":4602,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},361,"Antimicrobial effects",{"id":4604,"benefit":3014,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},362,{"id":4606,"benefit":2553,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},363,{"id":4608,"benefit":4609,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},364,"Inflammatory modulation",{"id":4611,"benefit":3007,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},365,[4613,4614,4615,4616,4617,4618,4619,4620,4621,4622,4623,4624],{"id":221,"benefit":4584,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":4585,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":226,"benefit":4587,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":4588,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":3839,"benefit":4590,"benefitCategory":3683,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":3844,"benefit":4592,"benefitCategory":3683,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":3850,"benefit":4594,"benefitCategory":3683,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":3856,"benefit":4596,"benefitCategory":4072,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":4598,"benefit":4599,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":4601,"benefit":4602,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":4604,"benefit":3014,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":4606,"benefit":2553,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":4608,"benefit":4609,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":4611,"benefit":3007,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},[4626,4630,4633,4635,4636,4638,4639],{"id":4627,"sideEffect":4628,"description":23,"severity":2597,"frequency":4629,"source":24,"sourceType":24,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":23,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},625,"Well tolerated; no significant local or systemic adverse events","rare",{"id":3013,"sideEffect":4631,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":23,"source":44,"sourceType":44,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":4632,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Cytotoxicity","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40869425/",{"id":3016,"sideEffect":4634,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":23,"source":44,"sourceType":44,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":4632,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Proteolytic 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daily","Antimicrobial peptide with immune-modulating properties","Tripeptide γ-L-Glu-L-Cys-Gly",[4653,4659,4665,4671,4675,4680,4686,4692,4697,4702,4708,4714,4720,4726,4731,4736,4742,4747,4752,4757,4763,4768,4774,4780,4785,4790,4796,4801,4806,4812,4818,4823,4829,4835,4840,4845,4850,4856,4861,4867,4872,4876,4881,4887,4892,4897,4903,4909,4914,4920,4925,4930,4935],{"id":4654,"title":4655,"authors":4656,"journal":4657,"year":157,"citationType":44,"doi":4658},91,"Peptide-based approaches to quorum-sensing disruption: emerging trends and applications in antimicrobial therapy.","Mo Ahamad Khan, Lechen Zhu, Hu Zhu","Bioorganic & medicinal chemistry","10.1016/j.bmc.2025.118496",{"id":4660,"title":4661,"authors":4662,"journal":4663,"year":157,"citationType":44,"doi":4664},92,"Decoding LL-37: Structure and antimicrobial mechanisms against microbial threats.","Alireza Neshani, Hosna Zare, Nooshin Sadat Ghiasi, Mohammad Ali Karimi, Mahdi Hosseini Bafghi","Infection, genetics and evolution : journal of molecular epidemiology and evolutionary genetics in infectious diseases","10.1016/j.meegid.2025.105853",{"id":4666,"title":4667,"authors":4668,"journal":4669,"year":157,"citationType":44,"doi":4670},93,"Host defense peptides as a new drug lead to a strategy for inflammatory bowel disease.","Júlia Morales Rodrigues, Ana Paula Ferreira Leal, Danieli Fernanda Buccini, Octavio Luiz Franco","Drug discovery today","10.1016/j.drudis.2025.104535",{"id":3662,"title":4672,"authors":155,"journal":2649,"year":157,"citationType":158,"doi":4673,"researchPaperId":4674},"LL-37: Antimicrobial Peptide in Wound Healing","10.3389/fimmu.2025.1487293","pubmed_40933728",{"id":3664,"title":4676,"authors":155,"journal":3059,"year":458,"citationType":4677,"doi":4678,"researchPaperId":4679},"LL-37 First-in-Man Phase 1 Trial for Venous Leg Ulcers","RCT Phase I","10.1016/j.peptides.2024.171398","pubmed_40524420",{"id":4681,"title":4682,"authors":4683,"journal":4684,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":4685},1074,"LL-37 transports immunoreactive cGAMP to activate STING signaling and enhance interferon-mediated host antiviral immunity.","Wei X, Zhang L, Yang Y, Hou Y, Xu Y, Wang Z, Su H, Han F, Han J, Liu P, Hu S, Koci MD, Sun X, Zhang C","Cell reports","10.1016/j.celrep.2022.110880",{"id":4687,"title":4688,"authors":4689,"journal":4690,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":4691},1075,"Regulation of LL-37 in Bone and Periodontium Regeneration.","Chinipardaz Z, Zhong JM, Yang S","Life (Basel, Switzerland)","10.3390/life12101533",{"id":4693,"title":4694,"authors":4695,"journal":3059,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":4696},1076,"The LL-37 domain: A clue to cathelicidin immunomodulatory response?","Leite ML, Duque HM, Rodrigues GR, da Cunha NB, Franco OL","10.1016/j.peptides.2023.171011",{"id":4698,"title":4699,"authors":4700,"journal":504,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":4701},1077,"Cathelicidin peptide LL-37: A multifunctional peptide involved in heart disease.","Miao S, Liu H, Yang Q, Zhang Y, Chen T, Chen S, Mao X, Zhang Q","10.1016/j.phrs.2024.107529",{"id":4703,"title":4704,"authors":4705,"journal":4706,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":4707},1078,"Antibiofilm properties of cathelicidin LL-37: an in-depth review.","Memariani H, Memariani M","World journal of microbiology & biotechnology","10.1007/s11274-023-03545-z",{"id":4709,"title":4710,"authors":4711,"journal":4712,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":4713},1079,"LL-37: Cathelicidin-related antimicrobial peptide with pleiotropic activity.","Fabisiak A, Murawska N, Fichna J","Pharmacological reports : PR","10.1016/j.pharep.2016.03.015",{"id":4715,"title":4716,"authors":4717,"journal":4718,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":4719},1080,"Cathelicidin LL-37: A new important molecule in the pathophysiology of systemic lupus erythematosus.","Moreno-Angarita A, Aragón CC, Tobón GJ","Journal of translational autoimmunity","10.1016/j.jtauto.2019.100029",{"id":4721,"title":4722,"authors":4723,"journal":4724,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":4725},1081,"LL-37, the master antimicrobial peptide, its multifaceted role from combating infections to cancer immunity.","Keshri AK, Rawat SS, Chaudhary A, Sharma S, Kapoor A, Mehra P, Kaur R, Mishra A, Prasad A","International journal of antimicrobial agents","10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2024.107398",{"id":4727,"title":4728,"authors":4729,"journal":516,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":4730},1082,"LL-37 Triggers Antimicrobial Activity in Human Platelets.","Sánchez-Peña FJ, Romero-Tlalolini MLÁ, Torres-Aguilar H, Cruz-Hernández DS, Baltiérrez-Hoyos R, Sánchez-Aparicio SR, Aquino-Domínguez AS, Aguilar-Ruiz SR","10.3390/ijms24032816",{"id":4732,"title":4733,"authors":4734,"journal":4706,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":4735},1083,"Antifungal properties of cathelicidin LL-37: current knowledge and future research directions.","Memariani M, Memariani H","10.1007/s11274-023-03852-5",{"id":4737,"title":4738,"authors":4739,"journal":4740,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":4741},1084,"The Potential of Human Peptide LL-37 as an Antimicrobial and Anti-Biofilm Agent.","Ridyard KE, Overhage J","Antibiotics (Basel, Switzerland)","10.3390/antibiotics10060650",{"id":4743,"title":4744,"authors":4745,"journal":2206,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":4746},1085,"LL-37-dsRNA Complexes Modulate Immune Response via RIG-I in Oral Keratinocytes.","Kato H, Ohta K, Akagi M, Fukada S, Sakuma M, Naruse T, Nishi H, Shigeishi H, Takechi M, Aikawa T","10.1007/s10753-023-01787-5",{"id":4748,"title":4749,"authors":4750,"journal":516,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":4751},1086,"Structural Plasticity of LL-37 Indicates Elaborate Functional Adaptation Mechanisms to Bacterial Target Structures.","Zeth K, Sancho-Vaello E","10.3390/ijms22105200",{"id":4753,"title":4754,"authors":4755,"journal":2696,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":4756},1087,"Cathelicidin LL-37 in periodontitis: current research advances and future prospects - A review.","He Y, Zhou Y, Liu N, Zhang W, Chen X, Qiu G, Shen Y","10.1016/j.intimp.2025.114277",{"id":4758,"title":4759,"authors":4760,"journal":4761,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":4762},1088,"Serum LL-37 and inflammatory cytokines levels in psoriasis.","Lao J, Xie Z, Qin Q, Qin R, Li S, Yuan Y","Immunity, inflammation and disease","10.1002/iid3.802",{"id":4764,"title":4765,"authors":4766,"journal":773,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":4767},1089,"Vitamin D triggers hCAP18/LL-37 production: Implications for LL-37-induced human osteoblast cytotoxicity.","Aidoukovitch A, Bankell E, Svensson D, Nilsson BO","10.1016/j.bbrc.2024.149962",{"id":4769,"title":4770,"authors":4771,"journal":4772,"year":1105,"citationType":167,"doi":4773},1090,"Cathelicidin LL-37: a multitask antimicrobial peptide.","Bucki R, Leszczyńska K, Namiot A, Sokołowski W","Archivum immunologiae et therapiae experimentalis","10.1007/s00005-009-0057-2",{"id":4775,"title":4776,"authors":4777,"journal":4778,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":4779},1091,"Roles and Mechanisms of Human Cathelicidin LL-37 in Cancer.","Chen X, Zou X, Qi G, Tang Y, Guo Y, Si J, Liang L","Cellular physiology and biochemistry : international journal of experimental cellular physiology, biochemistry, and pharmacology","10.1159/000490183",{"id":4781,"title":4782,"authors":4783,"journal":4772,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":4784},1092,"The Role of Cathelicidin LL-37 in Cancer Development.","Piktel E, Niemirowicz K, Wnorowska U, Wątek M, Wollny T, Głuszek K, Góźdź S, Levental I, Bucki R","10.1007/s00005-015-0359-5",{"id":4786,"title":4787,"authors":4788,"journal":3059,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":4789},1093,"Molecular mechanisms of LL-37-induced receptor activation: An overview.","Verjans ET, Zels S, Luyten W, Landuyt B, Schoofs L","10.1016/j.peptides.2016.09.002",{"id":4791,"title":4792,"authors":4793,"journal":4794,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":4795},1094,"Design of Antimicrobial Peptides: Progress Made with Human Cathelicidin LL-37.","Wang G, Narayana JL, Mishra B, Zhang Y, Wang F, Wang C, Zarena D, Lushnikova T, Wang X","Advances in experimental medicine and biology","10.1007/978-981-13-3588-4_12",{"id":4797,"title":4798,"authors":4799,"journal":4220,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":4800},1095,"The Roles of Cathelicidin LL-37 in Inflammatory Bowel Disease.","Sun L, Wang W, Xiao W, Yang H","10.1097/MIB.0000000000000804",{"id":4802,"title":4803,"authors":4804,"journal":516,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":4805},1096,"Therapeutic Potential of Cathelicidin Peptide LL-37, an Antimicrobial Agent, in a Murine Sepsis Model.","Nagaoka I, Tamura H, Reich J","10.3390/ijms21175973",{"id":4807,"title":4808,"authors":4809,"journal":4810,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":4811},1097,"Unique features of human cathelicidin LL-37.","Bandurska K, Berdowska A, Barczyńska-Felusiak R, Krupa P","BioFactors (Oxford, England)","10.1002/biof.1225",{"id":4813,"title":4814,"authors":4815,"journal":4816,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":4817},1098,"Overview of signal transduction between LL37 and bone marrow-derived MSCs.","Zhu Y, Lu F, Zhang G, Liu Z","Journal of molecular histology","10.1007/s10735-021-10048-4",{"id":4819,"title":4820,"authors":4821,"journal":3183,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":4822},1099,"Increased LL37 in psoriasis and other inflammatory disorders promotes LDL uptake and atherosclerosis.","Nakamura Y, Kulkarni NN, Takahashi T, Alimohamadi H, Dokoshi T, Liu E, Shia M, Numata T, Luo EW, Gombart AF, Yang X, Secrest P, Gordts PL, Tsimikas S, Wong GC, Gallo RL","10.1172/JCI172578",{"id":4824,"title":4825,"authors":4826,"journal":4827,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":4828},1100,"LL37/self-DNA complexes mediate monocyte reprogramming.","Damara A, Wegner J, Trzeciak ER, Kolb A, Nastaranpour M, Khatri R, Tuettenberg A, Kramer D, Grabbe S, Shahneh F","Clinical immunology (Orlando, Fla.)","10.1016/j.clim.2024.110287",{"id":4830,"title":4831,"authors":4832,"journal":4833,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":4834},1101,"Delivery LL37 by chitosan nanoparticles for enhanced antibacterial and antibiofilm efficacy.","Rashki S, Safardoust-Hojaghan H, Mirzaei H, Abdulsahib WK, Mahdi MA, Salavati-Niasari M, Khaledi A, Khorshidi A, Mousavi SGA","Carbohydrate polymers","10.1016/j.carbpol.2022.119634",{"id":4836,"title":4837,"authors":4838,"journal":1962,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":4839},1102,"Celastrol inhibits LL37-induced rosacea by inhibiting Ca(2+)/CaMKII-mTOR-NF-κB activation.","Zeng Q, Yang J, Yan G, Zhang L, Wang P, Zhang H, Chen Q, Cao Y, Liu X, Wang X","10.1016/j.biopha.2022.113292",{"id":4841,"title":4842,"authors":4843,"journal":2183,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":4844},1103,"LL37 promotes angiogenesis: a potential therapeutic strategy for lower limb ischemic diseases.","Yang Y, Wu G, Wang Y, Mao Q, Zhang D, Wu J","10.3389/fphar.2025.1587351",{"id":4846,"title":4847,"authors":4848,"journal":1469,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":4849},1104,"LL37 Inhibits Aspergillus fumigatus Infection via Directly Binding to the Fungus and Preventing Excessive Inflammation.","Luo XL, Li JX, Huang HR, Duan JL, Dai RX, Tao RJ, Yang L, Hou JY, Jia XM, Xu JF","10.3389/fimmu.2019.00283",{"id":4851,"title":4852,"authors":4853,"journal":4854,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":4855},1105,"Cord blood antimicrobial peptide LL37 levels in preterm neonates and association with preterm complications.","Ren Z, Mo W, Yang L, Wang J, Zhang Q, Zhong Z, Wei W, Liu Z, Wu Z, Yao Y, Yang J","Italian journal of pediatrics","10.1186/s13052-022-01295-6",{"id":4857,"title":4858,"authors":4859,"journal":1006,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":4860},1106,"Native/citrullinated LL37-specific T-cells help autoantibody production in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus.","Lande R, Palazzo R, Gestermann N, Jandus C, Falchi M, Spadaro F, Riccieri V, James EA, Butera A, Boirivant M, Feldmeyer L, Surbeck I, Di Lucca J, Stuber F, Spinelli FR, Botti E, Marinari B, Bianchi L, Pica R, Cerbelli B, Giannakakis K, Auteri SE, Daniels I, Durrant LG, Horstman S, Costanzo A, Romero P, Alessandri C, Conti F, Valesini G, Gilliet M, Chizzolini C, Frasca L","10.1038/s41598-020-62480-3",{"id":4862,"title":4863,"authors":4864,"journal":4865,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":4866},1107,"Characterization of LL37 Binding to Collagen through Peptide Modification with a Collagen-Binding Domain.","Wei Z, Rolle MW, Camesano TA","ACS omega","10.1021/acsomega.3c05328",{"id":4868,"title":4869,"authors":4870,"journal":4173,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":4871},1108,"Albumin-Based LL37 Peptide Nanoparticles as a Sustained Release System against Pseudomonas aeruginosa Lung Infection.","Yang L, Liu Y, Wang N, Wang H, Wang K, Luo XL, Dai RX, Tao RJ, Wang HJ, Yang JW, Tao GQ, Qu JM, Ge BX, Li YY, Xu JF","10.1021/acsbiomaterials.0c01084",{"id":4873,"title":4874,"authors":4864,"journal":3859,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":4875},1109,"LL37 and collagen-binding domain-mediated LL37 binding with type I collagen: Quantification via QCM-D.","10.1016/j.colsurfb.2022.112852",{"id":4877,"title":4878,"authors":4879,"journal":1469,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":4880},1110,"LL37-driven mast cell degranulation and inflammation in rosacea via TLR2/JAK2/STAT3 axis.","Fan H, Sun R, Ma Q, Li X, Liu J, Zhang M, Xu C, Zhang D, Ma W","10.3389/fimmu.2025.1672021",{"id":4882,"title":4883,"authors":4884,"journal":4885,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":4886},1111,"LL37-mtDNA regulates viability, apoptosis, inflammation, and autophagy in lipopolysaccharide-treated RLE-6TN cells by targeting Hsp90aa1.","Zuo Y, Dang R, Peng H, Hu P, Yang Y","Open life sciences","10.1515/biol-2022-0943",{"id":4888,"title":4889,"authors":4890,"journal":4252,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":4891},1112,"Cathelicidin Antimicrobial Peptide LL37 Induces Toll-Like Receptor 8 and Amplifies IL-36γ and IL-17C in Human Keratinocytes.","Miura S, Garcet S, Li X, Cueto I, Salud-Gnilo C, Kunjravia N, Yamamura K, Gonzalez J, Murai-Yamamura M, Rambhia D, Krueger JG","10.1016/j.jid.2022.10.017",{"id":4893,"title":4894,"authors":4895,"journal":1728,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":4896},1113,"Cathelicidin LL37 Promotes Epithelial and Smooth-Muscle-Like Differentiation of Adipose-Derived Stem Cells through the Wnt/β-Catenin and NF-κB Pathways.","Li Y, Shan Z, Yang B, Yang D, Men C, Cui Y, Wu J","10.1134/S0006297917110116",{"id":4898,"title":4899,"authors":4900,"journal":4901,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":4902},1114,"LL37-DNA Complex Drives Vitiligo Progression Through TLR9-MyD88 Signaling Pathways.","Wang J, Mao H, Liu R, Zeng Z, Xie L, Yang Y, He Y","Pigment cell & melanoma research","10.1111/pcmr.13202",{"id":4904,"title":4905,"authors":4906,"journal":4907,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":4908},1115,"Heparin-LL37 complexes are less cytotoxic for human dental pulp cells and have undiminished antimicrobial and LPS-neutralizing abilities.","Yoshida K, Suzuki S, Kawada-Matsuo M, Nakanishi J, Hirata-Tsuchiya S, Komatsuzawa H, Yamada S, Shiba H","International endodontic journal","10.1111/iej.13130",{"id":4910,"title":4911,"authors":4912,"journal":464,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":4913},1116,"Cathelicidin LL37 Promotes Osteogenic Differentiation in vitro and Bone Regeneration in vivo.","Li L, Peng Y, Yuan Q, Sun J, Zhuang A, Bi X","10.3389/fbioe.2021.638494",{"id":4915,"title":4916,"authors":4917,"journal":4918,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":4919},1117,"17β-Estradiol promotes LL37-induced rosacea-like skin inflammation via G protein-coupled estrogen receptor 30.","Tang J, Chen P, Huang C, Wang W, Wang B, Shi W, Tang Y, Deng Z, Zhang Y, Li J, Jian D","Journal of dermatological science","10.1016/j.jdermsci.2025.05.005",{"id":4921,"title":4922,"authors":4923,"journal":3098,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":4924},1118,"Autoreactivity to self-antigens LL37 and ADAMTSL5 influences the clinical response to risankizumab in psoriatic patients.","Favaro R, Facheris P, Formai A, Gargiulo L, Ibba L, Fiorillo G, Latorre RV, Avagliano J, Narcisi A, Girolomoni G, Mercuri SR, Costanzo A","10.1016/j.jaut.2024.103244",{"id":4926,"title":4927,"authors":4928,"journal":1006,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":4929},1119,"Cathelicidin LL37-loaded extracellular vesicles from Edwardsiella piscicida promote antibacterial and wound-healing activity.","Dias MKHM, Jayathilaka EHTT, De Zoysa M","10.1038/s41598-025-28377-9",{"id":4931,"title":4932,"authors":4933,"journal":1469,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":4934},1120,"Characterization of circulating extracellular traps and immune responses to citrullinated LL37 in psoriasis.","Martín Monreal MT, Kvist-Hansen A, Massarenti L, Steffensen R, Loft N, Hansen PR, Ødum N, Skov L, Nielsen CH","10.3389/fimmu.2023.1247592",{"id":4936,"title":4937,"authors":4938,"journal":4939,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":4940},1121,"The EGCG and α-Mangosteen Stimulate SHED-IL10 and SHED-LL37 Metabolite Concentration.","Yuliati Y, Mahdani FY, Margaretha SA, Yastuti WTP, Surboyo MDC, Aljunaid MA, Qaid HR, Ridwan RD, Diyatri I","European journal of dentistry","10.1055/s-0043-1761460",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":2222,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":4943},"2026-01-05T22:12:13.610838","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/ll-37.webp","4493.33","C205H340N60O53","16130642","LLGDFFRKSKEKIGKEFKRIVQRIKDFLRNLVPRTES","SC/Topical","154947-66-7","CC[C@H](C)[C@@H](C(=O)NCC(=O)N[C@@H](CCCCN)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCC(=O)O)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC1=CC=CC=C1)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCCN)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCNC(=N)N)C(=O)N[C@@H]([C@@H](C)CC)C(=O)N[C@@H](C(C)C)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCC(=O)N)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCNC(=N)N)C(=O)N[C@@H]([C@@H](C)CC)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCCN)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(=O)O)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC2=CC=CC=C2)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(C)C)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCNC(=N)N)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(=O)N)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(C)C)C(=O)N[C@@H](C(C)C)C(=O)N3CCC[C@H]3C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCNC(=N)N)C(=O)N[C@@H]([C@@H](C)O)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCC(=O)O)C(=O)N[C@@H](CO)C(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@H](CCCCN)NC(=O)[C@H](CCC(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@H](CCCCN)NC(=O)[C@H](CO)NC(=O)[C@H](CCCCN)NC(=O)[C@H](CCCNC(=N)N)NC(=O)[C@H](CC4=CC=CC=C4)NC(=O)[C@H](CC5=CC=CC=C5)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(=O)O)NC(=O)CNC(=O)[C@H](CC(C)C)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(C)C)N",[4953,4958,4963,4967,4971],{"name":4954,"dose":4955,"frequency":4956,"route":4957},"Chronic Venous Ulcers","0.5 mg/mL","Twice weekly","Topical gel application",{"name":4959,"dose":4960,"frequency":4961,"route":4962},"Diabetic Foot Ulcers","0.5-1.6 mg/mL","Daily application","Topical cream",{"name":4964,"dose":4965,"frequency":1801,"route":4966},"Acute Wound Healing","1.6 mg/mL","Topical gel or cream",{"name":4968,"dose":4969,"frequency":4299,"route":4970},"Pressure Ulcer Treatment","0.5-1.0 mg/mL","Hydrogel delivery system",{"name":4972,"dose":4973,"frequency":4974,"route":4957},"Burn Wound Care","1.0 mg/mL","Once to twice daily",[4576,4976,4977,4978,4979],"Cathelicidin LL-37","hCAP18-derived peptide","CAMP (cathelicidin antimicrobial peptide)","FALL-39",[4981,4982,4983,4984],"Antimicrobial host defense","Wound healing (diabetic foot ulcers, venous leg ulcers)","Immunomodulation","Chronic wounds",{"human":4986,"animal":4987,"inVitro":4988,"uncertain":4989},"A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial found LL-37 cream enhanced healing of diabetic foot ulcers (Arch Dermatol Res 2023). A multicentric randomized placebo-controlled trial also reported LL-37 was safe and effective in enhancing healing of hard-to-heal venous leg ulcers (Wound Repair Regen 2021).","In animal wound models (e.g., diabetic mice), LL-37 accelerates wound closure and reduces bacterial burden, and it improves outcomes in infection models.","LL-37 has broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity (bacteria, fungi, viruses) via membrane disruption, neutralizes lipopolysaccharide, and modulates immune-cell chemotaxis and cytokine responses.","Systemic antimicrobial or anti-cancer applications remain experimental; clinical evidence is limited to topical wound-healing studies, and intranasal/systemic trials are preliminary.",[4991,4995],{"finding":4992,"source":4993,"year":478,"link":4994,"evidenceLevel":46},"LL-37 cream significantly enhanced healing of diabetic foot ulcers in a randomized double-blind controlled trial.","Randomized double-blind controlled trial (Arch Dermatol Res)","https://rd.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00403-023-02657-8",{"finding":4996,"source":4997,"year":465,"link":4998,"evidenceLevel":46},"LL-37 was safe and effective in enhancing healing of hard-to-heal venous leg ulcers in a multicentric prospective randomized placebo-controlled trial.","Multicentric randomized placebo-controlled trial (Wound Repair Regen)","https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/wrr.12977","Clinical evidence is limited to topical use in chronic wounds; trials are modest in size and mostly single-country, with no data supporting systemic administration. Formulation and dosing for research use are not standardized, and long-term safety data are lacking.","Endogenous human cathelicidin (37 amino acids) cleaved from hCAP18; acts via membrane disruption and immunomodulatory signaling. Exogenous delivery in trials has been topical (cream); a short biological half-life limits systemic use.",[5002,5005],{"question":5003,"answer":5004},"Is LL-37 approved as a medicine?","No. LL-37 is an endogenous antimicrobial peptide studied in clinical trials for wound healing, but no LL-37 product is FDA-approved.",{"question":5006,"answer":5007},"Does LL-37 kill bacteria?","It has broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity in lab studies, and topical trials show benefit in chronic wounds, but it is not a conventional antibiotic.",{"id":3969,"name":5009,"slug":5010,"description":5011,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":15,"views":2222,"shortDescription":5012,"peptideBenefits":5013,"benefits":5029,"peptideSideEffects":5034,"sideEffects":5040,"dosage":5043,"mechanism":5044,"safetyNote":5045,"research":5046,"statsCache":5047,"imageUrl":5049,"molecularWeight":5050,"halfLife":5051,"administrationRoute":4949,"totalMentions":8,"dataCompleteness":5052,"hasResearchData":15,"aliases":5053,"researchAreas":5059,"evidence":5064,"keyStudies":5069,"limitations":5078,"pharmacology":5079,"faqs":5080,"lastReviewed":359},"TB-4 Frag","tb-4-frag","TB-4 Fragment represents a specific peptide sequence derived from the full-length thymosin beta-4 (Tβ4) molecule. Research has explored whether smaller fragments of Tβ4 retain the regenerative and healing properties of the parent peptide while offering advantages in synthesis, stability, or cost. Various TB-4 fragments have been studied, with some retaining actin-binding capabilities and wound-healing properties. The most commonly referenced fragment includes the actin-binding domain responsible for Tβ4's effects on cell migration and tissue repair. Studies examining fragments suggest some biological activity is preserved, though typically at reduced potency compared to full-length TB-500/Tβ4. The appeal of fragments lies in potentially lower cost and simpler synthesis while maintaining therapeutic relevance. However, research on TB-4 fragments is considerably more limited than on full-length thymosin beta-4, and the optimal fragment sequence for different applications remains under investigation. Users should be aware that fragment products may vary in their specific sequences and biological activity.","Fragment of thymosin beta-4 for targeted healing benefits",[5014,5018,5021,5025],{"id":5015,"benefit":5016,"benefitCategory":5017,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},450,"Multi-tissue regeneration","Healing",{"id":5019,"benefit":5020,"benefitCategory":5017,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},451,"Wound healing support",{"id":5022,"benefit":5023,"benefitCategory":5024,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},452,"Cardiac repair potential","Cardiovascular",{"id":5026,"benefit":5027,"benefitCategory":5028,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},453,"Dermal healing","Skin Health",[5030,5031,5032,5033],{"id":5015,"benefit":5016,"benefitCategory":5017,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":5019,"benefit":5020,"benefitCategory":5017,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":5022,"benefit":5023,"benefitCategory":5024,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":5026,"benefit":5027,"benefitCategory":5028,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},[5035,5038],{"id":5036,"sideEffect":5037,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},295,"No adverse events in Phase II trials",{"id":5039,"sideEffect":2340,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},296,[5041,5042],{"id":5036,"sideEffect":5037,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":5039,"sideEffect":2340,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"dosage not established","Different fragments of Thymosin Beta-4 for enhanced tissue repair","Research compound. ANGIOGENESIS CONCERN - Avoid with cancer history. WADA BANNED. Phase III trials ongoing (dry eye).",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":8,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":5048},"2026-01-26T08:09:06.667657","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/tb-4-frag.webp","844.0","Variable (fragment)",80,[5054,5055,5056,5057,5058],"TB4 fragment","Thymosin beta-4 fragment","TB-500","LKKTETQ (actin-binding motif)","Thymosin β4 (full-length parent)",[5060,3014,5061,5062,5063],"Tissue repair and regeneration","Angiogenesis","Cardiac repair after myocardial infarction","Ophthalmic wound healing",{"human":5065,"animal":5066,"inVitro":5067,"uncertain":5068},"Full-length thymosin beta-4 has been studied in clinical trials (e.g., a phase 2 randomized trial of systemic TB4 after ST-elevation myocardial infarction, NCT01311518, and ophthalmic trials for corneal wound healing). No FDA approval exists; the C-terminal fragment sold as 'TB-500'/'TB-4 frag' has essentially no published human trial data of its own.","Animal models show thymosin beta-4 accelerates dermal wound healing, promotes angiogenesis, and improves cardiac function after myocardial infarction; the actin-binding motif LKKTETQ is implicated in cell migration and repair.","In vitro studies demonstrate TB4-mediated actin sequestration, cell migration and endothelial tube formation.","Athletic-recovery and broad 'healing' claims for TB-500-style fragments are not supported by clinical evidence; fragment-specific pharmacology is poorly characterized.",[5070,5074],{"finding":5071,"source":5072,"year":1122,"link":5073,"evidenceLevel":46},"Phase 2 trial (NCT01311518) evaluated the safety and efficacy of injectable thymosin beta 4 (RGN-352) in patients with acute ST-elevation myocardial infarction.","Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 2 trial (ClinicalTrials.gov)","https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT01311518",{"finding":5075,"source":5076,"year":249,"link":5077,"evidenceLevel":50},"Thymosin beta4 activated integrin-linked kinase and promoted cardiac cell migration, survival and cardiac repair in animal models.","Preclinical study (Nature Medicine)","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15565145/","Published clinical data apply to full-length thymosin beta-4, not to the commercially sold fragment; the fragment has no dedicated human trials; dosing, stability and safety of 'TB-500' products are unregulated and poorly documented.","The 43-amino-acid thymosin beta-4 sequesters actin monomers (via the LKKTETQ actin-binding motif) and promotes cell migration, angiogenesis and wound healing. The fragment marketed as TB-500 contains the actin-binding domain. Pharmacokinetics of the fragment in humans are not published.",[5081,5084],{"question":5082,"answer":5083},"Is TB-500 (TB-4 frag) FDA-approved?","No. It is an unapproved research compound; only investigational trials of full-length thymosin beta-4 exist.",{"question":5085,"answer":5086},"Is the fragment the same as thymosin beta-4?","No — it is a shortened version containing the actin-binding motif; most clinical evidence comes from the full-length peptide.",{"id":5088,"name":5089,"slug":5090,"description":5091,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":28,"views":4579,"researchStatus":5092,"peptideBenefits":5093,"benefits":5108,"peptideSideEffects":5115,"sideEffects":5123,"dosage":5127,"mechanism":5128,"safetyNote":5129,"athleteWarning":5130,"chemicalMakeup":5131,"citations":5132,"research":5367,"statsCache":5368,"imageUrl":5371,"molecularWeight":5372,"molecularFormula":5373,"pubchemId":5374,"sequence":5375,"halfLife":5376,"administrationRoute":540,"casNumber":5377,"smiles":5378,"totalMentions":5369,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"protocols":5379,"aliases":5402,"researchAreas":5408,"evidence":5413,"keyStudies":5418,"limitations":5431,"pharmacology":5432,"faqs":5433,"lastReviewed":359},33,"Thymosin Beta-4","thymosin-beta-4","Thymosin Beta-4 (Tβ4) is one of the most abundant peptides in your body, found in virtually every cell except red blood cells. It's your body's natural \"repair signal\" that orchestrates healing after injury. **What does it do?** Thymosin Beta-4 controls actin, a protein that forms the \"skeleton\" inside your cells and enables them to move. When tissue is damaged, Tβ4 helps cells migrate to the injury site, promotes blood vessel formation, and reduces inflammation and scarring. **What the research shows:** • Accelerates wound healing in skin, cornea, and heart tissue • Reduces inflammation and scar tissue formation • Promotes new blood vessel growth (angiogenesis) • Supports hair follicle development • May protect the nervous system and support nerve regeneration **Where it's been studied:** Clinical applications include corneal injury repair, skin wounds, burns, and cardiac protection after heart attacks. **TB-500 connection:** TB-500 is a synthetic version of Thymosin Beta-4 commonly used in research and veterinary medicine. **Important to know:** While research is promising, Thymosin Beta-4 is not FDA-approved for any condition. Most evidence comes from animal studies and early human trials. --- **Sources:** Goldstein AL, et al. (2022) Current Protein & Peptide Science. DOI:10.2174/1389203724666221201093500 | Xing Y, et al. (2021) Chinese Journal of Burns. DOI:10.3760/cma.j.cn501120-20210221-00059","Research compound - Full-length healing peptide",[5094,5096,5098,5101,5103,5106],{"id":5095,"benefit":386,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},124,{"id":5097,"benefit":5061,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},126,{"id":5099,"benefit":5100,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},128,"Flexibility improvement",{"id":5102,"benefit":3014,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},123,{"id":5104,"benefit":5105,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},125,"Cell migration",{"id":5107,"benefit":3649,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},127,[5109,5110,5111,5112,5113,5114],{"id":5095,"benefit":386,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":5097,"benefit":5061,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":5099,"benefit":5100,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":5102,"benefit":3014,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":5104,"benefit":5105,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":5107,"benefit":3649,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},[5116,5119,5121],{"id":5117,"sideEffect":5118,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},88,"Rare injection site pain",{"id":5120,"sideEffect":2340,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},87,{"id":5122,"sideEffect":2621,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},89,[5124,5125,5126],{"id":5117,"sideEffect":5118,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":5120,"sideEffect":2340,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":5122,"sideEffect":2621,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"2-10mg weekly","Promotes wound healing and tissue regeneration","Research compound only. TB-500 is the more commonly used synthetic fragment.","WADA BANNED - Prohibited in competitive sports as healing peptide","43-amino acid peptide, full-length thymosin β-4",[5133,5138,5143,5148,5152,5156,5161,5166,5171,5175,5180,5185,5190,5193,5197,5202,5207,5211,5215,5219,5223,5228,5232,5236,5240,5245,5249,5254,5259,5264,5267,5272,5276,5280,5284,5289,5293,5297,5301,5306,5311,5316,5321,5326,5330,5335,5340,5341,5345,5349,5353,5357,5362],{"id":5134,"title":5135,"authors":155,"journal":2649,"year":458,"citationType":158,"doi":5136,"researchPaperId":5137},19,"Thymosin Beta-4 in Tissue Repair and Regeneration","10.3389/fimmu.2024.1415796","pubmed_41235866",{"id":5139,"title":5140,"authors":155,"journal":2642,"year":458,"citationType":430,"doi":5141,"researchPaperId":5142},21,"Thymosin Beta-4 for Cardiac Repair After Myocardial Infarction","10.1016/j.biopha.2024.116428","pubmed_40279568",{"id":5144,"title":5145,"authors":155,"journal":156,"year":458,"citationType":158,"doi":5146,"researchPaperId":5147},23,"Thymosin Beta-4 in Corneal Wound Healing","10.3390/ijms251810043","pubmed_39448028",{"id":843,"title":5149,"authors":5150,"journal":2041,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":5151},"Thymosin β(4) and β(10) Expression in Human Organs during Development: A Review.","Faa G, Messana I, Coni P, Piras M, Pichiri G, Piludu M, Iavarone F, Desiderio C, Vento G, Tirone C, Manconi B, Olianas A, Contini C, Cabras T, Castagnola M","10.3390/cells13131115",{"id":1296,"title":5153,"authors":5154,"journal":2696,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":5155},"Thymosin beta-4 denotes new directions towards developing prosperous anti-aging regenerative therapies.","Bock-Marquette I, Maar K, Maar S, Lippai B, Faskerti G, Gallyas F Jr, Olson EN, Srivastava D","10.1016/j.intimp.2023.109741",{"id":5157,"title":5158,"authors":5159,"journal":2723,"year":173,"citationType":167,"doi":5160},1972,"Thymosin beta 4 interactions.","Bubb MR","10.1016/s0083-6729(03)01008-2",{"id":5162,"title":5163,"authors":5164,"journal":2673,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":5165},1973,"Thymosin beta 4 and the eye: the journey from bench to bedside.","Sosne G","10.1080/14712598.2018.1486818",{"id":5167,"title":5168,"authors":5169,"journal":2673,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":5170},1974,"Thymosin beta 4 regulation of actin in sepsis.","Belsky JB, Rivers EP, Filbin MR, Lee PJ, Morris DC","10.1080/14712598.2018.1448381",{"id":1348,"title":5172,"authors":5173,"journal":2723,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":5174},"Thymosin Beta 4 Is a Potential Regulator of Hepatic Stellate Cells.","Kim J, Jung Y","10.1016/bs.vh.2016.04.011",{"id":5176,"title":5177,"authors":5178,"journal":2723,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":5179},1976,"Cardioprotection by Thymosin Beta 4.","Pipes GT, Yang J","10.1016/bs.vh.2016.04.004",{"id":5181,"title":5182,"authors":5183,"journal":2723,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":5184},1977,"Thymosin Beta 4: A Potential Novel Therapy for Neurotrophic Keratopathy, Dry Eye, and Ocular Surface Diseases.","Sosne G, Rimmer D, Kleinman HK, Ousler G","10.1016/bs.vh.2016.04.012",{"id":5186,"title":5187,"authors":5188,"journal":1145,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":5189},1978,"Thymosin beta 4 attenuates PrP(106-126)-induced human brain endothelial cells dysfunction.","Song K, Han HJ, Kim S, Kwon J","10.1016/j.ejphar.2019.172891",{"id":823,"title":5191,"authors":5173,"journal":516,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":5192},"Potential role of thymosin Beta 4 in liver fibrosis.","10.3390/ijms160510624",{"id":1552,"title":5194,"authors":5195,"journal":2735,"year":290,"citationType":167,"doi":5196},"Thymosin beta-4 is essential for coronary vessel development and promotes neovascularization via adult epicardium.","Smart N, Risebro CA, Melville AA, Moses K, Schwartz RJ, Chien KR, Riley PR","10.1196/annals.1415.000",{"id":5198,"title":5199,"authors":5200,"journal":2735,"year":290,"citationType":167,"doi":5201},1981,"Thymosin beta-4 and the eye: I can see clearly now the pain is gone.","Sosne G, Qiu P, Kurpakus-Wheater M","10.1196/annals.1415.004",{"id":810,"title":5203,"authors":5204,"journal":5205,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":5206},"Thymosin beta 4 as an Alzheimer disease intervention target identified using human brain organoids.","Zeng PM, Sun XY, Li Y, Wu WD, Huang J, Cao DD, Qian PJ, Ju XC, Luo ZG","Stem cell reports","10.1016/j.stemcr.2025.102601",{"id":774,"title":5208,"authors":5209,"journal":2673,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":5210},"Sources of variability in quantifying circulating thymosin beta-4: literature review and recommendations.","Tan WKY, Purnamawati K, Pakkiri LS, Tan SH, Yang X, Chan MY, Drum CL","10.1080/14712598.2018.1448382",{"id":1499,"title":5212,"authors":5213,"journal":3104,"year":1354,"citationType":167,"doi":5214},"Thymosin beta 4.","Low TL, Goldstein AL","10.1016/s0076-6879(85)16018-0",{"id":1354,"title":5216,"authors":5217,"journal":2696,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":5218},"Thymosin beta-4 - A potential tool in healing middle ear lesions in adult mammals.","Bako P, Lippai B, Nagy J, Kramer S, Kaszas B, Tornoczki T, Bock-Marquette I","10.1016/j.intimp.2023.109830",{"id":1360,"title":5220,"authors":5221,"journal":516,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":5222},"Thymosin Beta-4 Modulates Cardiac Remodeling by Regulating ROCK1 Expression in Adult Mammals.","Maar K, Thatcher JE, Karpov E, Rendeki S, Gallyas F Jr, Bock-Marquette I","10.3390/ijms26094131",{"id":2425,"title":5224,"authors":5225,"journal":5226,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":5227},"Thymosin beta-4 participate in antibacterial immunity and wound healing in black tiger shrimp, Penaeus monodon.","Lin C, Qiu L, Wang P, Zhang B, Yan L, Zhao C","Fish & shellfish immunology","10.1016/j.fsi.2023.109065",{"id":1314,"title":5229,"authors":5230,"journal":1145,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":5231},"Thymosin beta 4 alleviates non-alcoholic fatty liver by inhibiting ferroptosis via up-regulation of GPX4.","Zhu Z, Zhang Y, Huang X, Can L, Zhao X, Wang Y, Xue J, Cheng M, Zhu L","10.1016/j.ejphar.2021.174351",{"id":1372,"title":5233,"authors":5234,"journal":516,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":5235},"Thymosin Beta 4 Inhibits LPS and ATP-Induced Hepatic Stellate Cells via the Regulation of Multiple Signaling Pathways.","Choi J, Cho Y, Choi H, Lee S, Han H, Lee J, Kwon J","10.3390/ijms24043439",{"id":849,"title":5237,"authors":5238,"journal":1990,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":5239},"Thymosin Beta-4 Induces Mouse Hair Growth.","Gao X, Liang H, Hou F, Zhang Z, Nuo M, Guo X, Liu D","10.1371/journal.pone.0130040",{"id":1403,"title":5241,"authors":5242,"journal":5243,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":5244},"Loss of endogenous thymosin β(4) accelerates glomerular disease.","Vasilopoulou E, Kolatsi-Joannou M, Lindenmeyer MT, White KE, Robson MG, Cohen CD, Sebire NJ, Riley PR, Winyard PJ, Long DA","Kidney international","10.1016/j.kint.2016.06.032",{"id":920,"title":5246,"authors":5247,"journal":2041,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":5248},"Utilizing Developmentally Essential Secreted Peptides Such as Thymosin Beta-4 to Remind the Adult Organs of Their Embryonic State-New Directions in Anti-Aging Regenerative Therapies.","Maar K, Hetenyi R, Maar S, Faskerti G, Hanna D, Lippai B, Takatsy A, Bock-Marquette I","10.3390/cells10061343",{"id":1396,"title":5250,"authors":5251,"journal":5252,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":5253},"Thymosin beta 4-Induced Autophagy Increases Cholinergic Signaling in PrP (106-126)-Treated HT22 Cells.","Han HJ, Kim S, Kwon J","Neurotoxicity research","10.1007/s12640-018-9985-0",{"id":710,"title":5255,"authors":5256,"journal":5257,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":5258},"Recombinant Human Thymosin Beta-4 Protects against Mouse Coronavirus Infection.","Yu R, Mao Y, Li K, Zhai Y, Zhang Y, Liu S, Gao Y, Chen Z, Liu Y, Fang T, Zhao M, Li R, Xu J, Chen W","Mediators of inflammation","10.1155/2021/9979032",{"id":729,"title":5260,"authors":5261,"journal":5262,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":5263},"Thymosinβ4 alleviates cholestatic liver fibrosis in mice through downregulating PDGF/PDGFR and TGFβ/Smad pathways.","Chen C, Li X, Wang L","Digestive and liver disease : official journal of the Italian Society of Gastroenterology and the Italian Association for the Study of the Liver","10.1016/j.dld.2019.08.014",{"id":750,"title":5265,"authors":5266,"journal":2788,"year":465,"citationType":167},"Intra-Articular Injection of BPC 157 for Multiple Types of Knee Pain.","Lee E, Padgett B",{"id":723,"title":5268,"authors":5269,"journal":5270,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":5271},"Platelets and osteoblasts: secretome connections.","Tiedemann K, Tsao S, Komarova SV","American journal of physiology. Cell physiology","10.1152/ajpcell.00187.2022",{"id":2522,"title":5273,"authors":5274,"journal":4406,"year":1152,"citationType":167,"doi":5275},"Thymosinβ4: a novel assessed biomarker of the prognosis of acute-on-chronic liver failure patient?","Liu Y, Han T, Zhu ZY, Li Y","10.1016/j.clinre.2014.02.004",{"id":736,"title":5277,"authors":5278,"journal":2696,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":5279},"Inhibition of acetaminophen-induced hepatotoxicity in mice by exogenous thymosinβ4 treatment.","Wang L, Li X, Chen C","10.1016/j.intimp.2018.05.011",{"id":836,"title":5281,"authors":5282,"journal":2673,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":5283},"The role of thymosin-β4 in kidney disease.","Vasilopoulou E, Winyard PJ, Riley PR, Long DA","10.1517/14712598.2015.1009891",{"id":203,"title":5285,"authors":5286,"journal":5287,"year":1152,"citationType":167,"doi":5288},"New molecular medicine-based scar management strategies.","Arno AI, Gauglitz GG, Barret JP, Jeschke MG","Burns : journal of the International Society for Burn Injuries","10.1016/j.burns.2013.11.010",{"id":166,"title":5290,"authors":5291,"journal":2673,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":5292},"Thymosin-β4: A key modifier of renal disease.","Vasilopoulou E, Riley PR, Long DA","10.1080/14712598.2018.1473371",{"id":173,"title":5294,"authors":5295,"journal":2723,"year":1122,"citationType":167,"doi":5296},"Thymosins and muscle regeneration.","Hara T","10.1016/B978-0-12-386015-6.00032-9",{"id":249,"title":5298,"authors":5299,"journal":2735,"year":290,"citationType":167,"doi":5300},"The beta-thymosin/WH2 fold: multifunctionality and structure.","Dominguez R","10.1196/annals.1415.011",{"id":243,"title":5302,"authors":5303,"journal":5304,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":5305},"ADP-Ribosylation and Cross-Linking of Actin by Bacterial Protein Toxins.","Aktories K, Schwan C, Lang AE","Handbook of experimental pharmacology","10.1007/164_2016_26",{"id":3074,"title":5307,"authors":5308,"journal":5309,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":5310},"Purification of human β- and γ-actin from budding yeast.","Haarer BK, Pimm ML, de Jong EP, Amberg DC, Henty-Ridilla JL","Journal of cell science","10.1242/jcs.260540",{"id":290,"title":5312,"authors":5313,"journal":5314,"year":1196,"citationType":167,"doi":5315},"Nuclear Factor-κB: central regulator in ocular surface inflammation and diseases.","Lan W, Petznick A, Heryati S, Rifada M, Tong L","The ocular surface","10.1016/j.jtos.2012.04.001",{"id":229,"title":5317,"authors":5318,"journal":5319,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":5320},"Chivosazole A Modulates Protein-Protein Interactions of Actin.","Wang S, Gegenfurtner FA, Crevenna AH, Ziegenhain C, Kliesmete Z, Enard W, Müller R, Vollmar AM, Schneider S, Zahler S","Journal of natural products","10.1021/acs.jnatprod.9b00335",{"id":1384,"title":5322,"authors":5323,"journal":5324,"year":3074,"citationType":167,"doi":5325},"Therapeutic potential of thymosin-beta4 and its derivative N-acetyl-seryl-aspartyl-lysyl-proline (Ac-SDKP) in cardiac healing after infarction.","Cavasin MA","American journal of cardiovascular drugs : drugs, devices, and other interventions","10.2165/00129784-200606050-00003",{"id":1105,"title":5327,"authors":5328,"journal":2735,"year":290,"citationType":167,"doi":5329},"Models of the actin-bound forms of the beta-thymosins.","Xue B, Aguda AH, Robinson RC","10.1196/annals.1415.010",{"id":1122,"title":5331,"authors":5332,"journal":5333,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":5334},"Secondary Structures of Proteins: A Comparison of Models and Experimental Results.","Bokor M, Tantos Á","Journal of proteome research","10.1021/acs.jproteome.0c00986",{"id":1196,"title":5336,"authors":5337,"journal":5338,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":5339},"In Vitro-Evolved Peptides Bind Monomeric Actin and Mimic Actin-Binding Protein Thymosin-β4.","Gübeli RJ, Bertoldo D, Shimada K, Gerhold CB, Hurst V, Takahashi Y, Harada K, Mothukuri GK, Wilbs J, Harata M, Gasser SM, Heinis C","ACS chemical biology","10.1021/acschembio.0c00825",{"id":260,"title":2845,"authors":2846,"journal":2847,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":2848},{"id":1152,"title":5342,"authors":5343,"journal":2723,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":5344},"Intrinsic, Functional, and Structural Properties of β-Thymosins and β-Thymosin/WH2 Domains in the Regulation and Coordination of Actin Self-Assembly Dynamics and Cytoskeleton Remodeling.","Renault L","10.1016/bs.vh.2016.04.006",{"id":1516,"title":5346,"authors":5347,"journal":1481,"year":1152,"citationType":167,"doi":5348},"Structural basis of thymosin-β4/profilin exchange leading to actin filament polymerization.","Xue B, Leyrat C, Grimes JM, Robinson RC","10.1073/pnas.1412271111",{"id":1049,"title":5350,"authors":5351,"journal":5243,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":5352},"Amniotic fluid peptides predict postnatal kidney survival in developmental kidney disease.","Klein J, Buffin-Meyer B, Boizard F, Moussaoui N, Lescat O, Breuil B, Fedou C, Feuillet G, Casemayou A, Neau E, Hindryckx A, Decatte L, Levtchenko E, Raaijmakers A, Vayssière C, Goua V, Lucas C, Perrotin F, Cloarec S, Benachi A, Manca-Pellissier MC, Delmas HL, Bessenay L, Le Vaillant C, Allain-Launay E, Gondry J, Boudailliez B, Simon E, Prieur F, Lavocat MP, Saliou AH, De Parscau L, Bidat L, Noel C, Floch C, Bourdat-Michel G, Favre R, Weingertner AS, Oury JF, Baudouin V, Bory JP, Pietrement C, Fiorenza M, Massardier J, Kessler S, Lounis N, Auriol FC, Marcorelles P, Collardeau-Frachon S, Zürbig P, Mischak H, Magalhães P, Batut J, Blader P, Saulnier Blache JS, Bascands JL, Schaefer F, Decramer S, Schanstra JP, BIOMAN consortium","10.1016/j.kint.2020.06.043",{"id":498,"title":5354,"authors":5355,"journal":5356,"year":3074,"citationType":167},"Conjunctival expression of thymosin-beta4 in vernal keratoconjunctivitis.","Micera A, Bonini S, Lambiase A, Lapucci G, Bonini S, Rasi G","Molecular vision",{"id":491,"title":5358,"authors":5359,"journal":5360,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":5361},"Thymosin β4 is essential for adherens junction stability and epidermal planar cell polarity.","Padmanabhan K, Grobe H, Cohen J, Soffer A, Mahly A, Adir O, Zaidel-Bar R, Luxenburg C","Development (Cambridge, England)","10.1242/dev.193425",{"id":697,"title":5363,"authors":5364,"journal":5365,"year":173,"citationType":167,"doi":5366},"Anti-inflammatory effects in the skin of thymosin-beta4 splice-variants.","Girardi M, Sherling MA, Filler RB, Shires J, Theodoridis E, Hayday AC, Tigelaar RE","Immunology","10.1046/j.1365-2567.2003.01616.x",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":5369,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":5370},5,"2026-01-05T22:12:12.172534","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/thymosin-beta-4.webp","4982.00","C212H350N56O78S","45382195","PPP","2-4 hours","77591-33-4","CCC(C)C(C(=O)NC(CCC(=O)O)C(=O)NC(CCCCN)C(=O)NC(CC1=CC=CC=C1)C(=O)NC(CC(=O)O)C(=O)NC(CCCCN)C(=O)NC(CO)C(=O)NC(CCCCN)C(=O)NC(CC(C)C)C(=O)NC(CCCCN)C(=O)NC(CCCCN)C(=O)NC(C(C)O)C(=O)NC(CCC(=O)O)C(=O)NC(C(C)O)C(=O)NC(CCC(=O)N)C(=O)NC(CCC(=O)O)C(=O)NC(CCCCN)C(=O)NC(CC(=O)N)C(=O)N2CCCC2C(=O)NC(CC(C)C)C(=O)N3CCCC3C(=O)NC(CO)C(=O)NC(CCCCN)C(=O)NC(CCC(=O)O)C(=O)NC(C(C)O)C(=O)NC(C(C)CC)C(=O)NC(CCC(=O)O)C(=O)NC(CCC(=O)N)C(=O)NC(CCC(=O)O)C(=O)NC(CCCCN)C(=O)NC(CCC(=O)N)C(=O)NC(C)C(=O)NCC(=O)NC(CCC(=O)O)C(=O)NC(CO)C(=O)O)NC(=O)C(CCC(=O)O)NC(=O)C(C)NC(=O)C(CCSC)NC(=O)C(CC(=O)O)NC(=O)C4CCCN4C(=O)C(CCCCN)NC(=O)C(CC(=O)O)NC(=O)C(CO)NC(=O)C",[5380,5383,5388,5391,5395,5398],{"name":4964,"dose":5381,"frequency":310,"route":5382},"1.6 mg","Subcutaneous injection",{"name":5384,"dose":5385,"frequency":5386,"route":5387},"Cardiac Protection","42 mg","Single dose","IV bolus within 6 hours of MI",{"name":5389,"dose":5390,"frequency":4956,"route":5382},"Chronic Tissue Repair","6 mg",{"name":5392,"dose":5393,"frequency":5394,"route":1583},"Neurological Recovery","30 mg","Three times over 72 hours",{"name":5396,"dose":5397,"frequency":1804,"route":5382},"General Regeneration","2-5 mg",{"name":3591,"dose":5399,"frequency":5400,"route":5401},"0.6-14 mg","As per study design","SC or IV as indicated",[5403,5404,5405,5406,5407],"Thymosin beta-4","Tb4","TB-500 (synthetic form)","RGN-259 (ophthalmic)","NL005",[5409,5410,5411,5412],"Wound healing and tissue repair","Ophthalmology (corneal healing)","Cardiac repair / myocardial infarction","Angiogenesis and actin dynamics",{"human":5414,"animal":5415,"inVitro":5416,"uncertain":5417},"Thymosin beta-4 has been studied in Phase 2 trials for corneal wound healing (NCT00598871) and dry eye, and a Phase 3 trial of 0.1% RGN-259 ophthalmic solution in neurotrophic keratopathy reported significantly improved corneal healing versus vehicle (2023, PMID 36613994). Trials in acute myocardial infarction are ongoing (e.g., NL005, NCT05984134).","Animal studies show Tb4 accelerates skin, corneal, and cardiac wound healing, promotes angiogenesis, reduces inflammation and scarring, and protects cardiomyocytes after ischemic injury.","Cell studies demonstrate Tb4's actin-sequestering (G-actin binding) mechanism, promotion of cell migration, and support of endothelial tubule formation (angiogenesis).","Systemic use for performance or general healing is not FDA-approved; TB-500 (synthetic thymosin beta-4) is prohibited by WADA for athletes, and robust human data for muscle/tendon indications are lacking.",[5419,5423,5427],{"finding":5420,"source":5421,"year":478,"link":5422,"evidenceLevel":46},"In a Phase 3 trial, 0.1% RGN-259 (thymosin beta-4) ophthalmic solution promoted corneal healing and improved comfort in patients with neurotrophic keratopathy versus placebo.","Randomized, double-masked Phase 3 trial","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36613994/",{"finding":5424,"source":5425,"year":290,"link":5426,"evidenceLevel":46},"Phase 2 study of thymosin beta-4 for treating corneal wounds (including diabetic and neurotrophic etiologies) evaluated safety and healing efficacy.","Phase 2 clinical trial (ClinicalTrials.gov)","https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT00598871",{"finding":5428,"source":5429,"year":465,"link":5430,"evidenceLevel":50},"Preclinical studies show thymosin beta-4 reduces infarct size and improves contractile function in models of myocardial ischemic injury, supporting cardiac-repair research.","Preclinical studies / review (Frontiers in Endocrinology)","https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/endocrinology/articles/10.3389/fendo.2021.767785/full","Approved for no systemic indication; strongest human data are ophthalmic (corneal healing); evidence for muscle/tendon/performance use is largely anecdotal or preclinical; WADA-banned in sport; long-term systemic safety data are limited.","43-amino-acid actin-sequestering peptide present in most tissues; promotes cell migration, angiogenesis, and anti-inflammatory/anti-scarring responses. Systemic half-life is short (minutes), which is why sustained-release or ophthalmic formulations (RGN-259) and frequent dosing are used in trials.",[5434,5437],{"question":5435,"answer":5436},"Is thymosin beta-4 (TB-500) allowed in sport?","No - thymosin beta-4 and its synthetic form TB-500 are on the WADA Prohibited List, and positive tests have occurred in professional sport.",{"question":5438,"answer":5439},"What is the strongest clinical evidence for thymosin beta-4?","Ophthalmic use: a Phase 3 trial showed RGN-259 improved corneal healing in neurotrophic keratopathy. Systemic indications remain investigational.",{"id":3662,"name":5441,"slug":5442,"description":5443,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":15,"views":5369,"shortDescription":5444,"peptideBenefits":5445,"benefits":5465,"peptideSideEffects":5472,"sideEffects":5484,"dosage":5043,"mechanism":5488,"safetyNote":5489,"citations":5490,"research":5782,"statsCache":5783,"imageUrl":5785,"molecularWeight":5786,"molecularFormula":5787,"pubchemId":5788,"sequence":5789,"halfLife":5790,"administrationRoute":5791,"casNumber":5792,"smiles":5793,"totalMentions":8,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"protocols":5794,"aliases":5811,"researchAreas":5817,"evidence":5822,"keyStudies":5827,"limitations":5840,"pharmacology":5841,"faqs":5842,"lastReviewed":359},"VIP (Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide)","vip","VIP (Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide) is a 28-amino acid neuropeptide belonging to the secretin/glucagon superfamily, widely distributed throughout the central and peripheral nervous systems, immune tissues, and gastrointestinal tract. VIP acts as a neurotransmitter, neuromodulator, and immunomodulator through two G-protein coupled receptors (VPAC1 and VPAC2). Research demonstrates potent anti-inflammatory properties through inhibition of pro-inflammatory cytokines and promotion of regulatory T-cell function. VIP causes vasodilation, relaxes smooth muscle, stimulates water and electrolyte secretion, and regulates circadian rhythms. Studies indicate neuroprotective effects through multiple mechanisms including inhibition of neuroinflammation and support of neuronal survival. The peptide has shown therapeutic potential in models of autoimmune diseases, inflammatory bowel disease, sepsis, and neurodegenerative conditions. VIP also influences cardiac function, bronchodilation, and pancreatic secretion. Research into VIP and its analogs continues for applications in chronic inflammatory conditions and neurological disorders.","Vasoactive intestinal peptide for immune modulation and neuroprotection",[5446,5449,5452,5455,5459,5462],{"id":277,"benefit":5447,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":5448,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},"Neuroprotection: Induces protective proteins from astrocytes","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14501014/",{"id":282,"benefit":5450,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":5451,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},"Anti-inflammatory: Potent immunomodulator for autoimmune diseases","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19604262/",{"id":5453,"benefit":5454,"benefitCategory":5017,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},454,"Fracture healing support",{"id":5456,"benefit":5457,"benefitCategory":5458,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},455,"Osteogenesis promotion","Musculoskeletal",{"id":5460,"benefit":5461,"benefitCategory":5017,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},456,"Corneal wound healing",{"id":5463,"benefit":4983,"benefitCategory":5464,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},457,"Immune",[5466,5467,5468,5469,5470,5471],{"id":277,"benefit":5447,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":5448,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":282,"benefit":5450,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":5451,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":5453,"benefit":5454,"benefitCategory":5017,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":5456,"benefit":5457,"benefitCategory":5458,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":5460,"benefit":5461,"benefitCategory":5017,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":5463,"benefit":4983,"benefitCategory":5464,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},[5473,5478,5481],{"id":5474,"sideEffect":5475,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":5476,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":5477,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},301,"Vasodilation","Common","immediate",{"id":5479,"sideEffect":5480,"description":23,"severity":1669,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":5477,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},302,"Hypotension",{"id":5482,"sideEffect":5483,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":5476,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":5477,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},303,"Facial flushing",[5485,5486,5487],{"id":5474,"sideEffect":5475,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":5476,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":5477,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":5479,"sideEffect":5480,"description":23,"severity":1669,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":5477,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":5482,"sideEffect":5483,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":5476,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":5477,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Anti-inflammatory and immune modulation peptide for systemic healing","Research compound. Very short half-life limits systemic effects. Used in localized applications.",[5491,5497,5503,5508,5514,5520,5525,5530,5536,5542,5548,5553,5559,5564,5570,5576,5582,5588,5594,5599,5604,5610,5615,5621,5627,5632,5638,5644,5650,5656,5661,5667,5673,5678,5683,5688,5693,5699,5705,5711,5717,5723,5729,5735,5740,5745,5751,5756,5761,5767,5772,5777],{"id":5492,"title":5493,"authors":5494,"journal":5495,"year":458,"citationType":44,"doi":5496},94,"Transcriptional profiling identifies IL-33-expressing intestinal stromal cells as a signaling hub poised to interact with enteric neurons.","Patrycja M Topczewska, Anna Savvopoulou, Catalina Cosovanu, Christoph S N Klose","Frontiers in cell and developmental biology","10.1038/s41467-021-26460-z",{"id":5498,"title":5499,"authors":155,"journal":5500,"year":465,"citationType":158,"doi":5501,"researchPaperId":5502},79,"Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide: Immunomodulatory Functions","Frontiers in Endocrinology","10.3389/fendo.2021.654678","pubmed_33892145",{"id":5504,"title":5505,"authors":5506,"journal":1012,"year":1372,"citationType":167,"doi":5507},2070,"VIP: molecular biology and neurobiological function.","Gozes I, Brenneman DE","10.1007/BF02740606",{"id":5509,"title":5510,"authors":5511,"journal":5512,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":5513},2099,"Role of vasoactive intestinal peptide in osteoarthritis.","Jiang W, Wang H, Li YS, Luo W","Journal of biomedical science","10.1186/s12929-016-0280-1",{"id":5515,"title":5516,"authors":5517,"journal":5518,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":5519},2067,"Cortical VIP(+) /ChAT(+) interneurons: From genetics to function.","Dudai A, Yayon N, Soreq H, London M","Journal of neurochemistry","10.1111/jnc.15263",{"id":5521,"title":5522,"authors":5523,"journal":3059,"year":173,"citationType":167,"doi":5524},2068,"VIP as a trophic factor in the CNS and cancer cells.","Moody TW, Hill JM, Jensen RT","10.1016/s0196-9781(02)00290-5",{"id":5526,"title":5527,"authors":5528,"journal":2735,"year":750,"citationType":167,"doi":5529},2069,"VIP regulation of embryonic growth.","Hill JM, McCune SK, Alvero RJ, Glazner GW, Brenneman DE","10.1111/j.1749-6632.1996.tb17488.x",{"id":5531,"title":5532,"authors":5533,"journal":5534,"year":249,"citationType":167,"doi":5535},2071,"[Role of VIP-neurons in the hypothalamic suprachiasmatic nucleus in the control of blood glucose].","Nagai K","Nihon yakurigaku zasshi. Folia pharmacologica Japonica","10.1254/fpj.123.253",{"id":5537,"title":5538,"authors":5539,"journal":5540,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":5541},2072,"Vegetative Insecticidal Protein (Vip): A Potential Contender From Bacillus thuringiensis for Efficient Management of Various Detrimental Agricultural Pests.","Gupta M, Kumar H, Kaur S","Frontiers in microbiology","10.3389/fmicb.2021.659736",{"id":5543,"title":5544,"authors":5545,"journal":5546,"year":729,"citationType":167,"doi":5547},2073,"Role of VIP in the regulation of LH secretion in the female rat.","Weick RF, Stobie KM","Neuroscience and biobehavioral reviews","10.1016/0149-7634(94)00057-8",{"id":5549,"title":5550,"authors":5551,"journal":2104,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":5552},2074,"VIP Modulation of Hippocampal Synaptic Plasticity: A Role for VIP Receptors as Therapeutic Targets in Cognitive Decline and Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy.","Cunha-Reis D, Caulino-Rocha A","10.3389/fncel.2020.00153",{"id":5554,"title":5555,"authors":5556,"journal":5557,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":5558},2075,"Neuroendocrine cells derived chemokine vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) in allergic diseases.","Verma AK, Manohar M, Upparahalli Venkateshaiah S, Mishra A","Cytokine & growth factor reviews","10.1016/j.cytogfr.2017.09.002",{"id":5560,"title":5561,"authors":5562,"journal":3059,"year":1360,"citationType":167,"doi":5563},2076,"Intercellular communication mediated by VIP in the cerebral cortex.","Magistretti PJ","10.1016/0196-9781(86)90181-6",{"id":5565,"title":5566,"authors":5567,"journal":5568,"year":1314,"citationType":167,"doi":5569},2077,"The vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) receptor: recent data and hypothesis.","Luis J, Martin JM, el Battari A, Marvaldi J, Pichon J","Biochimie","10.1016/0300-9084(88)90002-8",{"id":5571,"title":5572,"authors":5573,"journal":5574,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":5575},2078,"Study effect of MAPA-VIP on control of allergic asthma pathophysiology.","Jia W, Yang D","Postepy dermatologii i alergologii","10.5114/ada.2023.129458",{"id":5577,"title":5578,"authors":5579,"journal":5580,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":5581},2079,"Cortical VIP(+) Interneurons in the Upper and Deeper Layers Are Transcriptionally Distinct.","Wu J, Zhao Z, Shi Y, He M","Journal of molecular neuroscience : MN","10.1007/s12031-022-02040-8",{"id":5583,"title":5584,"authors":5585,"journal":5586,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":5587},2080,"The short-term plasticity of VIP interneurons in motor cortex.","McFarlan AR, Gomez I, Chou CYC, Alcolado A, Costa RP, Sjöström PJ","Frontiers in synaptic neuroscience","10.3389/fnsyn.2024.1433977",{"id":5589,"title":5590,"authors":5591,"journal":5592,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":5593},2081,"Different Roles for VIP Neurons in the Neonatal and Adult Suprachiasmatic Nucleus.","Mazuski C, Chen SP, Herzog ED","Journal of biological rhythms","10.1177/0748730420932073",{"id":5595,"title":5596,"authors":5597,"journal":5592,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":5598},2082,"Reduced VIP Expression Affects Circadian Clock Function in VIP-IRES-CRE Mice (JAX 010908).","Joye DAM, Rohr KE, Keller D, Inda T, Telega A, Pancholi H, Carmona-Alcocer V, Evans JA","10.1177/0748730420925573",{"id":5600,"title":5601,"authors":5602,"journal":516,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":5603},2083,"Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide (VIP) Protects Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) against Streptococcus agalatiae Infection.","Zhang Z, Li Q, Huang Y, Xu Z, Chen X, Jiang B, Huang Y, Jian J","10.3390/ijms232314895",{"id":5605,"title":5606,"authors":5607,"journal":5608,"year":750,"citationType":167,"doi":5609},2084,"The significance of vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) in immunomodulation.","Bellinger DL, Lorton D, Brouxhon S, Felten S, Felten DL","Advances in neuroimmunology","10.1016/s0960-5428(96)00008-3",{"id":5611,"title":5612,"authors":5613,"journal":2104,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":5614},2085,"The spike-timing-dependent plasticity of VIP interneurons in motor cortex.","McFarlan AR, Guo C, Gomez I, Weinerman C, Liang TA, Sjöström PJ","10.3389/fncel.2024.1389094",{"id":5616,"title":5617,"authors":5618,"journal":5619,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":5620},2086,"Distinct VIP and PACAP Functions in the Distal Nerve Stump During Peripheral Nerve Regeneration.","Woodley PK, Min Q, Li Y, Mulvey NF, Parkinson DB, Dun XP","Frontiers in neuroscience","10.3389/fnins.2019.01326",{"id":5622,"title":5623,"authors":5624,"journal":5625,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":5626},2087,"Ovarian premature aging: VIP as key regulator of fibro-inflammation and foamy macrophages generation.","Castagnola L, Gallino L, Schafir A, Vota D, Grasso E, Gori S, Waschek J, Parborell F, Pérez Leirós C, Hauk V, Ramhorst R","Molecular and cellular endocrinology","10.1016/j.mce.2025.112486",{"id":5628,"title":5629,"authors":5630,"journal":1475,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":5631},2088,"Ablation of microRNAs in VIP(+) interneurons impairs olfactory discrimination and decreases neural activity in the olfactory bulb.","Wu J, Liu P, Mao X, Qiu F, Gong L, Wu J, Wang D, He M, Li A","10.1111/apha.13767",{"id":5633,"title":5634,"authors":5635,"journal":5636,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":5637},2089,"Disinhibition by VIP interneurons is orthogonal to cross-modal attentional modulation in primary visual cortex.","Myers-Joseph D, Wilmes KA, Fernandez-Otero M, Clopath C, Khan AG","Neuron","10.1016/j.neuron.2023.11.006",{"id":5639,"title":5640,"authors":5641,"journal":5642,"year":1396,"citationType":167,"doi":5643},2090,"Vasoactive-intestinal-Peptide (vip) modulates early events of migration in human keratinocytes.","Wollina U, Knopf B","International journal of oncology","10.3892/ijo.2.2.229",{"id":5645,"title":5646,"authors":5647,"journal":5648,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":5649},2091,"Variable importance for projection (VIP) scores for analyzing the contribution of risk factors in severe adverse events to Xiyanping injection.","Zheng R, Chen Z, Guan Z, Zhao C, Cui H, Shang H","Chinese medicine","10.1186/s13020-023-00718-8",{"id":5651,"title":5652,"authors":5653,"journal":5654,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":5655},2092,"Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide (VIP) Nanoparticles for Diagnostics and for Controlled and Targeted Drug Delivery.","Klippstein R, Pozo D","Advances in protein chemistry and structural biology","10.1016/bs.apcsb.2014.11.006",{"id":5657,"title":5658,"authors":5659,"journal":1151,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":5660},2093,"Increased Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide (VIP) in polycystic ovary syndrome patients undergoing IVF.","Sallicandro L, Gliozheni E, Feudi D, Sabbatini P, Pellegrino RM, Alabed HBR, Baldini D, Gerli S, Alviggi C, Cascardi E, Cicinelli E, Malvasi A, Fioretti B","10.3389/fendo.2024.1331282",{"id":5662,"title":5663,"authors":5664,"journal":5665,"year":1372,"citationType":167,"doi":5666},2094,"Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), a putative neurotransmitter of nonadrenergic, noncholinergic (NANC) inhibitory innervation and its relevance to therapy.","Venugopalan CS","Journal of veterinary pharmacology and therapeutics","10.1111/j.1365-2885.1989.tb00652.x",{"id":5668,"title":5669,"authors":5670,"journal":5671,"year":836,"citationType":167,"doi":5672},2095,"Immunobiology of vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP).","Pozo D, Delgado M, Martínez M, Guerrero JM, Leceta J, Gomariz RP, Calvo JR","Immunology today","10.1016/s0167-5699(99)01525-x",{"id":5674,"title":5675,"authors":5676,"journal":5625,"year":810,"citationType":167,"doi":5677},2096,"A new neuroregulator: the vasoactive intestinal peptide or VIP.","Rosselin G, Maletti M, Besson J, Rostène W","10.1016/0303-7207(82)90092-2",{"id":5679,"title":5680,"authors":5681,"journal":477,"year":229,"citationType":167,"doi":5682},2097,"Structure-activity relationship of vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP): potent agonists and potential clinical applications.","Onoue S, Misaka S, Yamada S","10.1007/s00210-007-0232-0",{"id":5684,"title":5685,"authors":5686,"journal":1151,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":5687},2098,"Therapeutic potential of vasoactive intestinal peptide and its receptor VPAC2 in type 2 diabetes.","Hou X, Yang D, Yang G, Li M, Zhang J, Zhang J, Zhang Y, Liu Y","10.3389/fendo.2022.984198",{"id":5689,"title":5690,"authors":5691,"journal":3059,"year":290,"citationType":167,"doi":5692},2100,"Bioactive analogues and drug delivery systems of vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) for the treatment of asthma/COPD.","Onoue S, Yamada S, Yajima T","10.1016/j.peptides.2007.04.009",{"id":5694,"title":5695,"authors":5696,"journal":5697,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":5698},2101,"The effects of vasoactive intestinal peptide in neurodegenerative disorders.","Deng G, Jin L","Neurological research","10.1080/01616412.2016.1250458",{"id":5700,"title":5701,"authors":5702,"journal":5703,"year":1196,"citationType":167,"doi":5704},2102,"Editorial: vasoactive intestinal peptide (vip): historic perspective and future potential.","Foster N","Endocrine, metabolic & immune disorders drug targets","10.2174/187153012803832521",{"id":5706,"title":5707,"authors":5708,"journal":5709,"year":229,"citationType":167,"doi":5710},2103,"Experimental study on vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) and its diaminopropane bound (VIP-DAP) analog in solution.","Caraglia M, Carteni M, Dicitore A, Cassese D, De Maria S, Ferranti P, Giuberti G, Abbruzzese A, Stiuso P","Amino acids","10.1007/s00726-007-0567-3",{"id":5712,"title":5713,"authors":5714,"journal":5715,"year":1384,"citationType":167,"doi":5716},2104,"Immunomodulation of innate immune responses by vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP): its therapeutic potential in inflammatory disease.","Smalley SG, Barrow PA, Foster N","Clinical and experimental immunology","10.1111/j.1365-2249.2009.03956.x",{"id":5718,"title":5719,"authors":5720,"journal":5721,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":5722},2105,"Recent advances in vasoactive intestinal peptide physiology and pathophysiology: focus on the gastrointestinal system.","Iwasaki M, Akiba Y, Kaunitz JD","F1000Research","10.12688/f1000research.18039.1",{"id":5724,"title":5725,"authors":5726,"journal":5727,"year":729,"citationType":167,"doi":5728},2106,"Vasoactive intestinal peptide: an important trophic factor and developmental regulator?","Waschek JA","Developmental neuroscience","10.1159/000111268",{"id":5730,"title":5731,"authors":5732,"journal":5733,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":5734},2107,"Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide (VIP) and its Receptors in Adipose Tissue: Implications for Cold Stress Adaptation.","Korkmaz OT, Saydam F, Dalkiran B, Değirmenci İ, Tunçel N","Cell biochemistry and biophysics","10.1007/s12013-024-01606-0",{"id":5736,"title":5737,"authors":5738,"journal":5709,"year":260,"citationType":167,"doi":5739},2108,"Vasoactive intestinal peptide: a neuropeptide with pleiotropic immune functions.","Delgado M, Ganea D","10.1007/s00726-011-1184-8",{"id":5741,"title":5742,"authors":5743,"journal":1006,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":5744},2109,"Vasoactive intestinal peptide axis is dysfunctional in patients with Graves' disease.","Carrión M, Ramos-Leví AM, Seoane IV, Martínez-Hernández R, Serrano-Somavilla A, Castro D, Juarranz Y, González-Álvaro I, Gomariz RP, Marazuela M","10.1038/s41598-020-70138-3",{"id":5746,"title":5747,"authors":5748,"journal":5749,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":5750},2110,"Vasoactive intestinal peptide increases apoptosis of hepatocellular carcinoma by inhibiting the cAMP/Bcl-xL pathway.","Hara M, Takeba Y, Iiri T, Ohta Y, Ootaki M, Watanabe M, Watanabe D, Koizumi S, Otsubo T, Matsumoto N","Cancer science","10.1111/cas.13861",{"id":5752,"title":5753,"authors":5754,"journal":3059,"year":849,"citationType":167,"doi":5755},2111,"Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP): an amnestic neuropeptide.","Flood JF, Garland JS, Morley JE","10.1016/0196-9781(90)90012-t",{"id":5757,"title":5758,"authors":5759,"journal":1006,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":5760},2112,"Vasoactive intestinal peptide blockade suppresses tumor growth by regulating macrophage polarization and function in CT26 tumor-bearing mice.","Kittikulsuth W, Nakano D, Kitada K, Uyama T, Ueda N, Asano E, Okano K, Matsuda Y, Nishiyama A","10.1038/s41598-023-28073-6",{"id":5762,"title":5763,"authors":5764,"journal":5765,"year":5186,"citationType":167,"doi":5766},2113,"Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP).","Bryant MG","Journal of clinical pathology. Supplement (Association of Clinical Pathologists)","10.1136/jcp.s1-8.1.63",{"id":5768,"title":5769,"authors":5770,"journal":1475,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":5771},2114,"The neuropeptide vasoactive intestinal peptide: direct effects on immune cells and involvement in inflammatory and autoimmune diseases.","Ganea D, Hooper KM, Kong W","10.1111/apha.12427",{"id":5773,"title":5774,"authors":5775,"journal":5642,"year":243,"citationType":167,"doi":5776},2115,"Expression of vasoactive intestinal peptide and functional VIP receptors in human prostate cancer: antagonistic action of a growth-hormone-releasing hormone analog.","Collado B, Carmena MJ, Sánchez-Chapado M, Ruíz-Villaespesa A, Bajo AM, Fernández-Martínez AB, Varga JL, Schally AV, Prieto JC","10.3892/ijo.26.6.1629",{"id":5778,"title":5779,"authors":5780,"journal":5781,"year":166,"citationType":167},2116,"Pre-clinical study on tumor vasoactive intestinal peptide receptor scintigraphy.","Wang X, Zhang M, Yang Z, Lin B, Zhang Q","Zhonghua zhong liu za zhi [Chinese journal of oncology]",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":8,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":5784},"2026-01-05T22:12:06.213107","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/vip.webp","3326.0","C147H237N43O43S","53314964","MDTRNKAQLLVLLTLLSVLFSQTSAWPLYRAPSALRLGDRIPFEGANEPDQVSLKEDIDMLQNALAENDTPYYDVSRNARHADGVFTSDFSKLLGQLSAKKYLESLMGKRVSSNISEDPVPVKRHSDAVFTDNYTRLRKQMAVKKYLNSILNGKRSSEGESPDFPEELEK","1-2 minutes","SC (local injection)","37221-79-7","CC[C@H](C)[C@@H](C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(C)C)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(=O)N)C(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@H](CO)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(=O)N)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(C)C)NC(=O)[C@H](CC1=CC=C(C=C1)O)NC(=O)[C@H](CCCCN)NC(=O)[C@H](CCCCN)NC(=O)[C@H](C(C)C)NC(=O)[C@H](C)NC(=O)[C@H](CCSC)NC(=O)[C@H](CCC(=O)N)NC(=O)[C@H](CCCCN)NC(=O)[C@H](CCCNC(=N)N)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(C)C)NC(=O)[C@H](CCCNC(=N)N)NC(=O)[C@H]([C@@H](C)O)NC(=O)[C@H](CC2=CC=C(C=C2)O)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(=O)N)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@H]([C@@H](C)O)NC(=O)[C@H](CC3=CC=CC=C3)NC(=O)[C@H](C(C)C)NC(=O)[C@H](C)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@H](CO)NC(=O)[C@H](CC4=CNC=N4)N",[5795,5800,5804,5808],{"name":5796,"dose":5797,"frequency":5798,"route":5799},"CIRS protocol (Shoemaker)","50mcg per spray, 4-8 sprays/day","4x daily","Intranasal",{"name":5801,"dose":5802,"frequency":5803,"route":5799},"General immune support","50-100mcg","2-4x daily",{"name":5805,"dose":5806,"frequency":5807,"route":5799},"Starting/sensitive patients","50mcg","2x daily",{"name":5809,"dose":5810,"frequency":5803,"route":5799},"Advanced/maintenance","100-200mcg",[5812,5813,5814,5815,5816],"VIP","vasoactive intestinal peptide","vasoactive intestinal polypeptide","Aviptadil","VPAC receptor ligand",[5818,5819,5820,957,5821],"Sarcoidosis and interstitial lung disease","Autoimmune and inflammatory disease","Asthma (bronchodilation)","ARDS (aviptadil trials)",{"human":5823,"animal":5824,"inVitro":5825,"uncertain":5826},"Inhaled VIP exerted immunoregulatory effects in a small placebo-controlled trial in pulmonary sarcoidosis (2010). Older studies showed inhaled VIP causes bronchodilation and protects against histamine-induced bronchoconstriction in asthmatic subjects. Intravenous aviptadil (VIP) was tested in hospitalized COVID-19 patients; results of the ACTIV-3b/TESICO trial did not show a survival benefit.","Animal models show VIP and its analogs suppress inflammation in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (a multiple sclerosis model), arthritis, and sepsis, and confer neuroprotection after ischemia.","VIP modulates macrophage and dendritic cell function, shifting immune responses toward anti-inflammatory and regulatory phenotypes in cell assays.","Broader 'anti-aging' or systemic immune-modulation claims are unproven; the neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory promise seen preclinically has not translated into approved therapies.",[5828,5832,5836],{"finding":5829,"source":5830,"year":1105,"link":5831,"evidenceLevel":46},"Inhaled VIP exerted immunoregulatory effects in patients with pulmonary sarcoidosis in a small placebo-controlled trial.","Randomized, placebo-controlled trial (American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine)","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20442436/",{"finding":5833,"source":5834,"year":774,"link":5835,"evidenceLevel":46},"Inhaled VIP caused bronchodilation and protected against histamine-induced bronchoconstriction in asthmatic subjects.","clinical study (early asthma trials)","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6139572/",{"finding":5837,"source":5838,"year":478,"link":5839,"evidenceLevel":46},"Aviptadil (intravenous VIP) did not show a survival benefit in severely ill hospitalized COVID-19 patients in the ACTIV-3b/TESICO treatment trial.","Phase 3 platform trial (ClinicalTrials.gov, results posted)","https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT06729606","VIP is rapidly degraded in plasma (very short half-life), which complicates delivery. The sarcoidosis and asthma studies are small and dated; the COVID-19 ARDS trials were negative on survival; no VIP formulation is FDA-approved. Neuroprotective claims rest mainly on preclinical data.","28-amino-acid neuropeptide with a very short plasma half-life due to rapid enzymatic degradation; delivered by inhalation or intravenous infusion in trials. Acts via VPAC1/VPAC2 G-protein-coupled receptors to modulate immune function, dilate vessels, and relax smooth muscle (bronchodilation). Stabilized analogs and formulations (e.g., aviptadil) were developed to improve half-life.",[5843,5846,5849],{"question":5844,"answer":5845},"What does VIP do in the body?","It is a neuropeptide and immunomodulator that signals through VPAC1/VPAC2 receptors: it relaxes smooth muscle (bronchodilation, vasodilation), regulates secretion, and shifts immune responses toward anti-inflammatory phenotypes.",{"question":5847,"answer":5848},"Is VIP approved as a drug?","No. VIP (including the form known as aviptadil) is not FDA-approved; it has been studied in trials for sarcoidosis, asthma, and COVID-19 ARDS.",{"question":5850,"answer":5851},"Why is VIP hard to use as a therapy?","It has a very short plasma half-life because enzymes rapidly degrade it, so trials use inhaled or intravenous delivery and researchers develop stabilized analogs.",{"id":5853,"name":5854,"slug":5855,"description":5856,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":15,"views":8,"shortDescription":5857,"researchStatus":5858,"dosage":4295,"mechanism":5859,"safetyNote":5860,"athleteWarning":23,"chemicalMakeup":23,"molecularWeight":5861,"molecularFormula":23,"sequence":23,"halfLife":5862,"administrationRoute":5863,"benefits":5864,"peptideBenefits":5886,"sideEffects":5894,"peptideSideEffects":5895,"citations":5896,"protocols":5908,"compatiblePeptides":5919,"research":5924,"statsCache":5925,"imageUrl":5926,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"totalMentions":8,"aliases":5927,"researchAreas":5930,"evidence":5933,"keyStudies":5935,"limitations":5936,"faqs":5937,"lastReviewed":359},77,"Adalank","adalank","Adalank (N-Acetyl Selank Amidate) is an enhanced synthetic derivative of Selank peptide, featuring N-terminal acetylation and C-terminal amidation for superior stability and blood-brain barrier penetration. Developed from the immunomodulatory peptide tuftsin, it's researched for anxiety reduction, cognitive enhancement, neuroprotection, and stress resilience with improved pharmacokinetic properties compared to the parent compound.","Adalank (N-Acetyl Selank Amidate) is an enhanced synthetic derivative of Selank peptide, featuring N-terminal acetylation and C-terminal amidation for superior stability and blood-brain barrier penetration.","Research compound - Not FDA-approved; approved for clinical use in Russia since early 2000s","Adalank crosses the blood-brain barrier via enhanced lipophilicity from N-acetylation and C-terminal amidation. It modulates GABAergic neurotransmission, upregulates BDNF in the hippocampus, influences serotonin metabolism, provides immunomodulatory effects via tuftsin-derived mechanisms, and reduces stress-related neurotransmitters without benzodiazepine dependency.","Use sterile injection technique to prevent infection. CRITICAL: This is an experimental peptide with limited direct human research data on N-Acetyl form. Parent compound Selank has extensive Russian clinical research showing high safety profile. No tolerance, dependency, or withdrawal unlike benzodiazepines. Start with lower doses (100-200mcg) to assess individual response. Cycle usage with 1-2 week breaks to prevent potential tolerance. Not FDA-approved; approved for clinical use in Russia since early 2000s. Not recommended during pregnancy or breastfeeding due to lack of safety data. Consult healthcare provider before use, especially with other psychiatric medications.","792.93","4-6 hours (extended vs. parent Selank)","Injectable",[5865,5868,5871,5874,5877,5880,5883],{"id":5866,"benefit":5867,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},850,"Potent anxiolytic effects",{"id":5869,"benefit":5870,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},851,"enhanced cognitive function",{"id":5872,"benefit":5873,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},852,"stress resilience",{"id":5875,"benefit":5876,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},853,"improved mood and emotional stability",{"id":5878,"benefit":5879,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},854,"neuroprotection",{"id":5881,"benefit":5882,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},855,"immunomodulatory support",{"id":5884,"benefit":5885,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},856,"Superior bioavailability and extended half-life compared to parent compound Selank",[5887,5888,5889,5890,5891,5892,5893],{"id":5866,"benefit":5867,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},{"id":5869,"benefit":5870,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},{"id":5872,"benefit":5873,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},{"id":5875,"benefit":5876,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},{"id":5878,"benefit":5879,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},{"id":5881,"benefit":5882,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},{"id":5884,"benefit":5885,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},[],[],[5897,5901,5905],{"id":5898,"title":5899,"authors":155,"journal":5900,"year":23,"citationType":24,"doi":155,"researchPaperId":23},2117,"Selank and BDNF Regulation in Hippocampus (Parent Compound)","PubMed",{"id":5902,"title":5903,"authors":155,"journal":5904,"year":23,"citationType":24,"doi":155,"researchPaperId":23},2118,"Peptide Selank Enhances Diazepam Effects in Stress (Parent Compound)","DOI",{"id":5906,"title":5907,"authors":155,"journal":5904,"year":23,"citationType":24,"doi":155,"researchPaperId":23},2119,"Selank and GABAergic Neurotransmission Gene Expression (Parent Compound)",[5909,5912,5914,5917],{"name":5910,"dose":4295,"frequency":5911,"route":555},"Anxiety reduction","1x daily (morning)",{"name":1648,"dose":5913,"frequency":3989,"route":555},"200-500mcg",{"name":5915,"dose":4295,"frequency":5916,"route":555},"Stress management","2x daily (morning, afternoon)",{"name":5918,"dose":5810,"frequency":3989,"route":555},"Initial assessment/trial",[5920],{"slug":5921,"status":5922,"note":5923},"diazepam","Compatible","Benzodiazepine - synergistic interaction",[],{"totalProtocols":2486,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":8,"researchPaperCount":2222,"lastCalculated":23},"/images/peptides/adalank.svg",[5928,5929],"Selank analog","Selank derivative",[5931,5932],"Anxiety and stress modulation (proposed)","Cognitive enhancement (proposed)",{"human":23,"animal":23,"inVitro":23,"uncertain":5934},"Adalank is sold as a research-grade Selank analog, but no peer-reviewed, PubMed-indexed studies specific to Adalank were located. Anxiolytic/nootropic claims are extrapolated from the parent compound Selank, a tuftsin-derived heptapeptide studied in Russia for anxiety disorders.",[],"No reliable published evidence for Adalank itself: no PubMed results, no clinical trials, no peer-reviewed animal or cell studies. All available information comes from peptide vendor product pages and chemical suppliers; identity, stability, dosing and safety are unverified.",[5938,5941],{"question":5939,"answer":5940},"Is Adalank the same as Selank?","No. Adalank is marketed as an analog/derivative of Selank (Thr-Lys-Pro-Arg-Pro-Gly-Pro), a tuftsin-related heptapeptide with Russian clinical studies in anxiety. Adalank-specific research is essentially absent from the peer-reviewed literature.",{"question":5942,"answer":5943},"Has Adalank been studied in clinical trials?","No clinical trials for Adalank were found. Vendor-published 'protocols' are not clinical evidence.",{"id":3336,"name":5945,"slug":5946,"description":5947,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":15,"views":8,"shortDescription":5948,"researchStatus":5949,"dosage":4295,"mechanism":5950,"safetyNote":5951,"athleteWarning":23,"chemicalMakeup":23,"molecularWeight":5952,"molecularFormula":23,"sequence":23,"halfLife":5953,"administrationRoute":5863,"benefits":5954,"peptideBenefits":5974,"sideEffects":5982,"peptideSideEffects":5983,"citations":5984,"protocols":5994,"compatiblePeptides":6003,"research":6008,"statsCache":6009,"imageUrl":6010,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"totalMentions":8,"aliases":6011,"researchAreas":6015,"evidence":6018,"keyStudies":6020,"limitations":6021,"faqs":6022,"lastReviewed":359},"Adamax","adamax","Adamax is a synthetic nootropic peptide and enhanced derivative of Semax, featuring N-terminal acetylation and C-terminal adamantane modification for superior stability and blood-brain barrier penetration. It's researched for cognitive enhancement, neuroprotection, neuroplasticity, and potential therapeutic applications in stroke recovery and mood disorders.","Adamax is a synthetic nootropic peptide and enhanced derivative of Semax, featuring N-terminal acetylation and C-terminal adamantane modification for superior stability and blood-brain barrier penetration.","Research compound - experimental peptide with limited human research data","Adamax crosses the blood-brain barrier via enhanced lipophilicity from adamantane modification. It upregulates BDNF and TrkB receptor sensitivity, modulates dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin levels, stabilizes microtubules through ADNP-derived mechanisms, and provides antioxidant and anti-inflammatory neuroprotection.","Use sterile injection technique to prevent infection. CRITICAL: This is an experimental peptide with limited human research data. Start with lower doses (100-200mcg) to assess individual response. Monitor for cardiovascular effects (increased blood pressure, heart palpitations). Cycle usage with breaks to prevent potential tolerance development. Not recommended during pregnancy or breastfeeding. Consult healthcare provider before use, especially with cardiovascular conditions. All reported benefits are primarily anecdotal and individual.","1032.24","6-8 hours (extended vs. parent Semax)",[5955,5958,5961,5963,5966,5969,5971],{"id":5956,"benefit":5957,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":15},857,"Enhanced cognitive function",{"id":5959,"benefit":5960,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":15},858,"improved focus and mental clarity",{"id":5962,"benefit":5879,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":15},859,{"id":5964,"benefit":5965,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":15},860,"neuroplasticity support",{"id":5967,"benefit":5968,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":15},861,"potential mood enhancement",{"id":5970,"benefit":5873,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":15},862,{"id":5972,"benefit":5973,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":15},863,"Superior bioavailability through direct systemic delivery",[5975,5976,5977,5978,5979,5980,5981],{"id":5956,"benefit":5957,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":15},{"id":5959,"benefit":5960,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":15},{"id":5962,"benefit":5879,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":15},{"id":5964,"benefit":5965,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":15},{"id":5967,"benefit":5968,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":15},{"id":5970,"benefit":5873,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":15},{"id":5972,"benefit":5973,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":15},[],[],[5985,5988,5991],{"id":5986,"title":5987,"authors":155,"journal":23,"year":23,"citationType":24,"doi":155,"researchPaperId":23},2120,"Adamax Stroke Recovery Preliminary Reports",{"id":5989,"title":5990,"authors":155,"journal":23,"year":23,"citationType":24,"doi":155,"researchPaperId":23},2121,"BDNF and TrkB Receptor Upregulation Studies",{"id":5992,"title":5993,"authors":155,"journal":23,"year":23,"citationType":24,"doi":155,"researchPaperId":23},2122,"Neurotransmitter Modulation in Cognitive Enhancement",[5995,5996,5998,6001],{"name":1648,"dose":4295,"frequency":3989,"route":555},{"name":957,"dose":5997,"frequency":3984,"route":555},"300mcg",{"name":5999,"dose":6000,"frequency":5911,"route":555},"Mood support","200mcg",{"name":6002,"dose":5810,"frequency":3989,"route":555},"Initial trial/assessment",[6004],{"slug":6005,"status":6006,"note":6007},"noopept","Caution","Monitor",[],{"totalProtocols":2486,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":8,"researchPaperCount":2222,"lastCalculated":23},"/images/peptides/adamax.svg",[6012,6013,6014],"Semax analog","adamantane-modified semax","N-phenylacetyl ACTH-derived peptide derivative",[6016,957,6017],"Cognitive enhancement (nootropic research)","BDNF/NGF signaling (claimed)",{"human":23,"animal":23,"inVitro":23,"uncertain":6019},"No peer-reviewed clinical, animal, or in-vitro studies of adamax itself were located. Most information circulating (BDNF/NGF upregulation, nootropic and neuroprotective effects) comes from peptide vendor catalogs, forums, and extrapolation from the parent compound semax, a registered Russian drug. These claims are unverified in the indexed published literature.",[],"Adamax has essentially no published evidence base: no indexed clinical trials, no animal efficacy studies, and no peer-reviewed in-vitro data were found in this review. Its profile is inferred from semax (which itself has mostly Russian-language clinical data) and from proprietary or vendor descriptions. Any use is experimental.",[6023,6026,6029],{"question":6024,"answer":6025},"Is adamax the same as semax?","No. Adamax is a synthetic derivative of semax (an ACTH(4-7)-derived heptapeptide) modified with an adamantane group, intended to improve stability or potency. No published comparative pharmacology was located.",{"question":6027,"answer":6028},"Has adamax been studied in humans?","No published clinical trials of adamax were found in PubMed or clinical trial registries as of this review.",{"question":6030,"answer":6031},"Is adamax approved by any regulator?","No. It is not FDA-approved and has no registered medicinal status found in this review; it is marketed only as a research compound.",{"id":6033,"name":6034,"slug":6035,"description":6036,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":15,"views":8,"shortDescription":6037,"researchStatus":6038,"dosage":6039,"mechanism":6040,"safetyNote":6041,"athleteWarning":23,"chemicalMakeup":23,"molecularWeight":6042,"molecularFormula":23,"sequence":23,"halfLife":6043,"administrationRoute":6044,"benefits":6045,"peptideBenefits":6067,"sideEffects":6075,"peptideSideEffects":6076,"citations":6077,"protocols":6087,"compatiblePeptides":6097,"research":6110,"statsCache":6111,"imageUrl":6112,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"totalMentions":8,"aliases":6113,"researchAreas":6118,"evidence":6122,"keyStudies":6126,"limitations":6131,"pharmacology":6132,"faqs":6133,"lastReviewed":359},90,"NA Semax Amidate","na-semax-amidate","N-Acetyl Semax Amidate is an enhanced and stabilized version of the Russian nootropic peptide Semax. Through acetylation and amidation modifications, it achieves superior stability, extended half-life, and enhanced bioavailability compared to standard Semax. This synthetic analog of ACTH (4-10) is designed for advanced cognitive enhancement and neuroprotection research.","N-Acetyl Semax Amidate is an enhanced and stabilized version of the Russian nootropic peptide Semax.","Research compound - not FDA approved","600μg","Intranasal NA Semax Amidate bypasses the blood-brain barrier via olfactory nerves, providing direct access to brain tissue with enhanced stability and prolonged activity compared to standard Semax","Use sterile solutions only. Start with lower doses. Avoid if nasal congestion present. Not recommended during pregnancy.","1007.16","~4-6 hours (longer than parent Semax)","Nasal",[6046,6049,6052,6055,6058,6061,6064],{"id":6047,"benefit":6048,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},906,"Direct brain access",{"id":6050,"benefit":6051,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},907,"rapid onset",{"id":6053,"benefit":6054,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},908,"proven efficacy",{"id":6056,"benefit":6057,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},909,"bypasses blood-brain barrier",{"id":6059,"benefit":6060,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},910,"research-validated delivery method",{"id":6062,"benefit":6063,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},911,"extended half-life",{"id":6065,"benefit":6066,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},912,"enhanced cognitive effects",[6068,6069,6070,6071,6072,6073,6074],{"id":6047,"benefit":6048,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},{"id":6050,"benefit":6051,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},{"id":6053,"benefit":6054,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},{"id":6056,"benefit":6057,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},{"id":6059,"benefit":6060,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},{"id":6062,"benefit":6063,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},{"id":6065,"benefit":6066,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},[],[],[6078,6081,6084],{"id":6079,"title":6080,"authors":155,"journal":23,"year":491,"citationType":24,"doi":155,"researchPaperId":23},2156,"Default Mode Network Enhancement (2018)",{"id":6082,"title":6083,"authors":155,"journal":23,"year":491,"citationType":24,"doi":155,"researchPaperId":23},2157,"Stroke Recovery and BDNF Enhancement (2018)",{"id":6085,"title":6086,"authors":155,"journal":23,"year":1152,"citationType":24,"doi":155,"researchPaperId":23},2158,"Gene Expression and Neuroprotection (2014)",[6088,6090,6093,6095],{"name":1648,"dose":6039,"frequency":3989,"route":6089},"Intranasal spray",{"name":6091,"dose":6092,"frequency":3989,"route":6089},"Mental fatigue resistance","800μg",{"name":6094,"dose":6039,"frequency":5807,"route":6089},"Memory enhancement",{"name":957,"dose":6096,"frequency":3989,"route":6089},"1200μg",[6098,6100,6102,6104,6106],{"slug":6099,"status":5922,"note":23},"na-selank-amidate",{"slug":6101,"status":5922,"note":23},"lions-mane",{"slug":6103,"status":6006,"note":6007},"modafinil",{"slug":6105,"status":6006,"note":6007},"blood-pressure-medications",{"slug":6107,"status":6108,"note":6109},"mao-inhibitors","Incompatible","Avoid",[],{"totalProtocols":2486,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":8,"researchPaperCount":2222,"lastCalculated":23},"/images/peptides/na-semax-amidate.svg",[6114,6115,6116,6117],"NA-Semax Amidate","N-acetyl Semax amidate","Semax amidate (variant)","ACTH(4-7)-derived heptapeptide",[6119,6120,957,6121],"Cognition and memory","Stroke recovery","Nootropic research",{"human":6123,"animal":6124,"inVitro":23,"uncertain":6125},"No clinical trials specific to the amidated 'NA-Semax Amidate' variant were identified. Clinical data exist for the parent peptide Semax: a clinical study reported effectiveness in the acute period of hemispheric ischemic stroke with improved neurological recovery, and Semax is a registered medication in Russia for neurological/cognitive indications.","Preclinical studies (mostly Russian) report neuroprotective and cognition-related effects of Semax in rodent models of cerebral ischemia; the amidate/acetyl modifications are intended to increase resistance to enzymatic degradation.","The added stability of the amidated variant is inferred from peptide-chemistry principles and vendor claims rather than published comparative clinical data; virtually all published evidence applies to unmodified Semax.",[6127],{"finding":6128,"source":6129,"year":723,"link":6130,"evidenceLevel":46},"Semax was reported effective in the acute period of hemispheric ischemic stroke, with clinical and electrophysiological improvements in neurological recovery.","Clinical study (Zhurnal Nevrologii i Psikhiatrii, Russian-language)","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11517472/","Published human data concern unmodified Semax, are mostly Russian-language with small samples and limited methodological detail in English abstracts; the NA-Semax Amidate variant itself has no clinical data; there are no large international registration trials.","Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide (Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro) modeled on ACTH(4-7), administered intranasally in clinical use. Research variants such as the N-acetylated, C-terminally amidated forms are intended to resist aminopeptidase degradation; no approved dosing exists for these research variants.",[6134,6137],{"question":6135,"answer":6136},"Is NA-Semax Amidate the same as Semax?","It is a chemically modified (amidated and often N-acetylated) version of Semax intended for greater stability, but it has no clinical trials of its own; human evidence comes from unmodified Semax.",{"question":6138,"answer":6139},"Is Semax approved anywhere?","Semax is registered as a medication in Russia for certain neurological and cognitive indications; it is not FDA-approved in the United States.",{"id":4654,"name":6141,"slug":6142,"description":6143,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":15,"views":8,"shortDescription":6144,"researchStatus":6145,"dosage":6146,"mechanism":6147,"safetyNote":6148,"athleteWarning":23,"chemicalMakeup":23,"molecularWeight":23,"molecularFormula":23,"sequence":23,"halfLife":6149,"administrationRoute":4541,"benefits":6150,"peptideBenefits":6166,"sideEffects":6172,"peptideSideEffects":6173,"citations":6174,"protocols":6184,"compatiblePeptides":6204,"research":6211,"statsCache":6212,"imageUrl":6213,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"totalMentions":8,"aliases":6214,"researchAreas":6218,"evidence":6221,"keyStudies":6226,"limitations":6231,"pharmacology":6232,"faqs":6233,"lastReviewed":359},"Omberacetam (Noopept)","omberacetam","Omberacetam (also known as Noopept or GVS-111) is a synthetic nootropic dipeptide (N-phenylacetyl-L-prolylglycine ethyl ester) developed in Russia in 1996 for its potent cognitive-enhancing and neuroprotective properties. While structurally distinct from racetams, it's considered part of the nootropic family and functions as a prodrug that converts to the active metabolite cycloprolylglycine (CPG). Research indicates it may enhance memory, learning, and neuroplasticity through BDNF/NGF upregulation and glutamatergic modulation at doses 1000x lower than piracetam.","Omberacetam (also known as Noopept or GVS-111) is a synthetic nootropic dipeptide (N-phenylacetyl-L-prolylglycine ethyl ester) developed in Russia in 1996 for its potent cognitive-enhancing and neuroprotective properties.","Research compound / nootropic - not FDA approved","10mg","Rapidly absorbed orally and converted to active metabolite cycloprolylglycine (CPG) which modulates AMPA/NMDA glutamate receptors and enhances cholinergic neurotransmission","Start with 10mg once daily to assess individual response before increasing dose. Always pair with a choline source (Alpha-GPC or CDP-Choline) to prevent headaches. Avoid evening dosing as cognitive stimulation may interfere with sleep. Do not combine with other strong cholinergic or glutamatergic compounds without caution. Not recommended for pregnant or breastfeeding women due to lack of safety data. Individuals with liver conditions should consult healthcare provider before use.","~30-60 minutes plasma",[6151,6154,6157,6160,6163],{"id":6152,"benefit":6153,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},913,"Primary administration route",{"id":6155,"benefit":6156,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},914,"rapid oral bioavailability",{"id":6158,"benefit":6159,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},915,"convenient dosing",{"id":6161,"benefit":6162,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},916,"well-studied in clinical trials",{"id":6164,"benefit":6165,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},917,"peak absorption within 7 minutes",[6167,6168,6169,6170,6171],{"id":6152,"benefit":6153,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},{"id":6155,"benefit":6156,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},{"id":6158,"benefit":6159,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},{"id":6161,"benefit":6162,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},{"id":6164,"benefit":6165,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},[],[],[6175,6178,6181],{"id":6176,"title":6177,"authors":155,"journal":23,"year":1516,"citationType":24,"doi":155,"researchPaperId":23},2159,"Neuroprotection in Alzheimer's Model (2015)",{"id":6179,"title":6180,"authors":155,"journal":23,"year":1384,"citationType":24,"doi":155,"researchPaperId":23},2160,"Neurotrophic Factor Expression (2009)",{"id":6182,"title":6183,"authors":155,"journal":23,"year":229,"citationType":24,"doi":155,"researchPaperId":23},2161,"Human Cognitive Enhancement Trial (2008)",[6185,6189,6193,6197,6201],{"name":6186,"dose":6146,"frequency":6187,"route":6188},"Cognitive enhancement (beginner)","1-2 times daily","Oral (sublingual or swallowed)",{"name":6190,"dose":2235,"frequency":6191,"route":6192},"Standard cognitive support","2-3 times daily","Oral, taken with or without food",{"name":6194,"dose":6195,"frequency":6191,"route":6196},"Intensive cognitive enhancement","20-30mg","Oral, cycled 4-8 weeks",{"name":6198,"dose":6199,"frequency":4299,"route":6200},"Cognitive recovery support","20mg","Oral (as studied in clinical trials)",{"name":6202,"dose":320,"frequency":1801,"route":6203},"Conservative/sensitive individuals","Sublingual for enhanced absorption",[6205,6206,6209],{"slug":6035,"status":6006,"note":6007},{"slug":6207,"status":6006,"note":6208},"dihexa","Use",{"slug":6210,"status":5922,"note":23},"choline-sources",[],{"totalProtocols":5369,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":8,"researchPaperCount":2222,"lastCalculated":23},"/images/peptides/omberacetam.svg",[6215,6216,6217],"Noopept","GVS-111","N-phenylacetyl-L-prolylglycine ethyl ester",[6119,6219,957,6220],"Post-stroke cognitive rehabilitation","Nootropic pharmacology",{"human":6222,"animal":6223,"inVitro":6224,"uncertain":6225},"Small clinical studies, mostly Russian, have reported cognitive improvements — e.g., in patients recovering from stroke when omberacetam was combined with physical rehabilitation. The evidence base is thin by Western standards: small samples, few independent replications, and no large multinational trials.","Rodent studies report improved learning and memory in amnesia models and neuroprotective effects, attributed in part to the active metabolite cycloprolylglycine (CPG) and glutamatergic (AMPA/NMDA) modulation.","Cell-based work characterizes omberacetam as a prodrug converted to cycloprolylglycine, with effects on glutamatergic signaling and neurotrophin-related pathways.","Claims that omberacetam is far more potent than piracetam, and of broad 'nootropic' benefits in healthy people, rest mainly on small Russian studies and animal data, with limited peer-reviewed replication.",[6227],{"finding":6228,"source":6229,"year":697,"link":6230,"evidenceLevel":46},"In a clinical study, stroke patients receiving omberacetam (Noopept) alongside physical rehabilitation showed greater improvement in cognitive function and asthenic symptoms than rehabilitation alone.","Clinical study (Reviews on Clinical Pharmacology and Drug Therapy)","https://doi.org/10.17816/RCF17187-92","Most clinical evidence comes from small Russian-language studies; there are no large, independently replicated trials and no FDA approval. Healthy-user 'smart drug' effects are not established in rigorous studies.","Orally active synthetic dipeptide (N-phenylacetyl-L-prolylglycine ethyl ester) that acts as a prodrug for the active metabolite cycloprolylglycine (CPG); not FDA approved. Reliable human pharmacokinetic data (half-life, dose-response) are limited in accessible literature.",[6234,6237,6240],{"question":6235,"answer":6236},"Is Noopept approved in the US?","No. Omberacetam is not FDA approved; it is sold as a research/nootropic compound.",{"question":6238,"answer":6239},"How does omberacetam work?","It is a prodrug converted to cycloprolylglycine (CPG), which is proposed to modulate glutamatergic (AMPA/NMDA) signaling and neuroplasticity-related pathways.",{"question":6241,"answer":6242},"Is there strong evidence for Noopept in healthy adults?","No — evidence is mostly from small Russian clinical studies and animal models; rigorous large trials in healthy adults are lacking.","https://cbzugwmbrmdvvkvtjpnn.supabase.co/storage/v1/object/public/peptide_category_icons/repair%20and%20recovery.png",{"id":2290,"slug":6245,"title":6246,"display_order":8,"peptides":6247,"icon":9305},"experimental","Experimental",[6248,6498,6596,6857,7119,7436,7742,8048,8387,8614,8894,8983,9089,9202],{"id":2486,"name":6249,"slug":6250,"description":6251,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":15,"views":294,"shortDescription":6252,"researchStatus":6253,"peptideBenefits":6254,"benefits":6306,"peptideSideEffects":6326,"sideEffects":6347,"dosage":6355,"mechanism":6356,"safetyNote":6357,"athleteWarning":6358,"chemicalMakeup":6359,"citations":6360,"research":6438,"statsCache":6439,"imageUrl":6441,"molecularWeight":6442,"molecularFormula":6443,"pubchemId":6444,"sequence":6445,"halfLife":6446,"administrationRoute":540,"casNumber":6447,"smiles":6448,"totalMentions":2290,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"protocols":6449,"aliases":6460,"researchAreas":6465,"evidence":6469,"keyStudies":6474,"limitations":6486,"pharmacology":6487,"faqs":6488,"lastReviewed":359},"AOD9604","aod9604","AOD9604 is a modified fragment of human growth hormone — specifically, the part responsible for fat burning, without the parts that affect blood sugar or cause cell growth. **The clever science behind it:** Researchers took amino acids 176-191 from growth hormone and added a tyrosine molecule to stabilize it. The result? A peptide that promotes fat breakdown (lipolysis) and blocks fat formation (lipogenesis) without the side effects of full growth hormone. **What the research shows:** • Stimulates fat cells to release stored fat for energy • Does NOT raise blood sugar or IGF-1 levels • Does NOT cause cellular proliferation (important for safety) • Granted \"Generally Recognized as Safe\" (GRAS) status by FDA for food use • Some studies show benefits for joint health and cartilage repair **How it differs from HGH:** Unlike growth hormone, AOD9604 doesn't bind to growth hormone receptors. This means you get the fat-burning benefits without the risks of elevated IGF-1 or insulin resistance. **Typical use:** Injected subcutaneously, often in the abdominal area, typically in the morning on an empty stomach. **Important to know:** While GRAS-approved as a food additive, AOD9604 is not FDA-approved as a drug. Clinical trials showed modest weight loss results. --- **Sources:** Heffernan M, et al. (2001) Endocrinology | Ng FM, et al. (2000) Journal of Molecular Endocrinology | FDA GRAS Notice GRN 000423","Fat-burning fragment of human growth hormone","Research compound - HGH fragment",[6255,6258,6261,6263,6266,6269,6272,6275,6278,6281,6284,6287,6290,6293,6296,6298,6300,6302,6304],{"id":6256,"benefit":6257,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},44,"Targeted fat loss",{"id":6259,"benefit":6260,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},45,"No impact on blood sugar",{"id":589,"benefit":6262,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Preserves lean muscle",{"id":6264,"benefit":6265,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},47,"Metabolic enhancement",{"id":6267,"benefit":6268,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},48,"Body composition improvement",{"id":6270,"benefit":6271,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},730,"Reduces body fat",{"id":6273,"benefit":6274,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},731,"Mimics the way natural growth hormone regulates fat metabolism",{"id":6276,"benefit":6277,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},732,"No adverse effects on blood sugar or growth",{"id":6279,"benefit":6280,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},733,"Stimulates lipolysis",{"id":6282,"benefit":6283,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},734,"Inhibits lipogenesis.",{"id":3907,"benefit":6285,"benefitCategory":6286,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},">50% reduction in body weight gain","weight loss",{"id":3912,"benefit":6288,"benefitCategory":6289,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},"Increased fat oxidation","metabolic",{"id":3918,"benefit":6291,"benefitCategory":6292,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},"Enhanced cartilage regeneration (intra-articular)","joint health",{"id":3924,"benefit":6294,"benefitCategory":6295,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},"No adverse effect on insulin sensitivity","safety",{"id":6297,"benefit":6271,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},606,{"id":6299,"benefit":6274,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},607,{"id":6301,"benefit":6277,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},608,{"id":6303,"benefit":6280,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},609,{"id":6305,"benefit":6283,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},610,[6307,6308,6309,6310,6311,6312,6313,6314,6315,6316,6317,6318,6319,6320,6321,6322,6323,6324,6325],{"id":6256,"benefit":6257,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":6259,"benefit":6260,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":589,"benefit":6262,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":6264,"benefit":6265,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":6267,"benefit":6268,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":6270,"benefit":6271,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},{"id":6273,"benefit":6274,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},{"id":6276,"benefit":6277,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},{"id":6279,"benefit":6280,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},{"id":6282,"benefit":6283,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},{"id":3907,"benefit":6285,"benefitCategory":6286,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},{"id":3912,"benefit":6288,"benefitCategory":6289,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},{"id":3918,"benefit":6291,"benefitCategory":6292,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},{"id":3924,"benefit":6294,"benefitCategory":6295,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},{"id":6297,"benefit":6271,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},{"id":6299,"benefit":6274,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},{"id":6301,"benefit":6277,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},{"id":6303,"benefit":6280,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},{"id":6305,"benefit":6283,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},[6327,6330,6333,6336,6339,6341,6344],{"id":6328,"sideEffect":6329,"description":23,"severity":4117,"frequency":4117,"source":24,"sourceType":24,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":23,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},628,"Unlike intact hGH - 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Generally well-tolerated in studies.","Not WADA banned - fat metabolism peptide safe for competitive athletes","Modified C-terminal fragment of HGH (amino acids 176-191)",[6361,6367,6371,6376,6380,6384,6388,6393,6397,6402,6407,6411,6416,6421,6424,6428,6432,6433],{"id":6362,"title":6363,"authors":155,"journal":6364,"year":458,"citationType":158,"doi":6365,"researchPaperId":6366},71,"AOD9604: hGH Fragment for Obesity - Clinical Trial Analysis","Obesity","10.1002/oby.23987","pubmed_39478212",{"id":30,"title":6368,"authors":6369,"journal":3452,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":6370},"Detection and in vitro metabolism of AOD9604.","Cox HD, Smeal SJ, Hughes CM, Cox JE, Eichner D","10.1002/dta.1715",{"id":33,"title":6372,"authors":6373,"journal":6374,"year":203,"citationType":167,"doi":6375},"Increase of fat oxidation and weight loss in obese mice caused by chronic treatment with human growth hormone or a modified C-terminal fragment.","Heffernan MA, Thorburn AW, Fam B, Summers R, Conway-Campbell B, Waters MJ, Ng FM","International journal of obesity and related metabolic disorders : journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity","10.1038/sj.ijo.0801740",{"id":36,"title":6377,"authors":6378,"journal":6379,"year":1516,"citationType":167},"Effect of Intra-articular Injection of AOD9604 with or without Hyaluronic Acid in Rabbit Osteoarthritis Model.","Kwon DR, Park GY","Annals of clinical and laboratory science",{"id":39,"title":6381,"authors":6382,"journal":6383,"year":249,"citationType":167},"AOD-9604 Metabolic.","Wilding J","Current opinion in investigational drugs (London, England : 2000)",{"id":1226,"title":6385,"authors":6386,"journal":3189,"year":203,"citationType":167,"doi":6387},"The effects of human GH and its lipolytic fragment (AOD9604) on lipid metabolism following chronic treatment in obese mice and beta(3)-AR knock-out mice.","Heffernan M, Summers RJ, Thorburn A, Ogru E, Gianello R, Jiang WJ, Ng FM","10.1210/endo.142.12.8522",{"id":1229,"title":6389,"authors":6390,"journal":6391,"year":836,"citationType":167,"doi":6392},"Metabolic studies of a synthetic lipolytic domain (AOD9604) of human growth hormone.","Ng FM, Sun J, Sharma L, Libinaka R, Jiang WJ, Gianello R","Hormone research","10.1159/000053183",{"id":1232,"title":6394,"authors":6395,"journal":3452,"year":1152,"citationType":167,"doi":6396},"Identification and characterization of peptide drugs in unknown pharmaceutical preparations seized by the Belgian authorities: case report on AOD9604.","Vanhee C, Moens G, Deconinck E, De Beer JO","10.1002/dta.1687",{"id":1234,"title":6398,"authors":6399,"journal":6400,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":6401},"Human sports drug testing by mass spectrometry.","Schänzer W, Thevis M","Mass spectrometry reviews","10.1002/mas.21479",{"id":1237,"title":6403,"authors":6404,"journal":6405,"year":1196,"citationType":167,"doi":6406},"Current updates in the medical management of obesity.","Khan A, Raza S, Khan Y, Aksoy T, Khan M, Weinberger Y, Goldman J","Recent patents on endocrine, metabolic & immune drug discovery","10.2174/187221412800604644",{"id":1902,"title":6408,"authors":6409,"journal":6410,"year":290,"citationType":167},"[Obesity: a review of currently used antiobesity drugs and new compounds in clinical development].","Zieba R","Postepy higieny i medycyny doswiadczalnej (Online)",{"id":1897,"title":6412,"authors":6413,"journal":6414,"year":3074,"citationType":167,"doi":6415},"Potential role of new therapies in modifying cardiovascular risk in overweight patients with metabolic risk factors.","Jensen MD","Obesity (Silver Spring, Md.)","10.1038/oby.2006.294",{"id":2997,"title":6417,"authors":6418,"journal":6419,"year":1152,"citationType":167,"doi":6420},"Analytical approaches for the detection of emerging therapeutics and non-approved drugs in human doping controls.","Thevis M, Schänzer W","Journal of pharmaceutical and biomedical analysis","10.1016/j.jpba.2014.05.020",{"id":2999,"title":6422,"authors":6423,"journal":6383,"year":3074,"citationType":167},"Obesity drugs in clinical development.","Halford JC",{"id":3002,"title":6425,"authors":6426,"journal":6427,"year":243,"citationType":167},"Gateways to clinical trials.","Bayés M, Rabasseda X, Prous JR","Methods and findings in experimental and clinical pharmacology",{"id":3643,"title":6429,"authors":6430,"journal":3452,"year":260,"citationType":167,"doi":6431},"AOD-9604 does not influence the WADA hGH isoform immunoassay.","Orlovius AK, Thomas A, Schänzer W, Thevis M","10.1002/dta.1557",{"id":3648,"title":3461,"authors":3462,"journal":3463,"year":1152,"citationType":167,"doi":3464},{"id":3651,"title":6434,"authors":6435,"journal":6436,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":6437},"Simplifying and expanding the screening for peptides \u003C2 kDa by direct urine injection, liquid chromatography, and ion mobility mass spectrometry.","Thomas A, Görgens C, Guddat S, Thieme D, Dellanna F, Schänzer W, Thevis M","Journal of separation science","10.1002/jssc.201501060",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":2290,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":6440},"2026-01-05T22:12:13.056209","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/aod9604.avif","1815.12","C78H123N23O23S2","71300664","YLRIVQCRSVEGSCGF","2-3 hours","221231-10-3","CC[C@H](C)[C@@H](C(=O)N[C@@H](C(C)C)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCC(=O)N)C(=O)N[C@H]1CSSC[C@H](NC(=O)[C@@H](NC(=O)CNC(=O)[C@@H](NC(=O)[C@@H](NC(=O)[C@@H](NC(=O)[C@@H](NC1=O)CCCNC(=N)N)CO)C(C)C)CCC(=O)O)CO)C(=O)NCC(=O)N[C@@H](CC2=CC=CC=C2)C(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@H](CCCNC(=N)N)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(C)C)NC(=O)[C@H](CC3=CC=C(C=C3)O)N",[6450,6453,6456,6458],{"name":6451,"dose":6452,"frequency":1801,"route":311},"Fat loss","250-300mcg",{"name":6454,"dose":6455,"frequency":1801,"route":311},"Enhanced fat loss","400-500mcg",{"name":6457,"dose":4298,"frequency":1801,"route":311},"Joint support",{"name":6459,"dose":6000,"frequency":1801,"route":311},"Conservative start",[6461,6462,6463,6464],"AOD-9604","hGH fragment 177-191","modified human growth hormone C-terminal fragment","AOD9604 hexadecapeptide",[6466,6467,6468],"Weight management / fat loss","Anti-obesity drug development","Growth hormone fragment pharmacology",{"human":6470,"animal":6471,"inVitro":6472,"uncertain":6473},"A placebo-controlled dose-ranging trial in overweight/obese adults reported greater 12-week weight loss at all tested AOD9604 doses than placebo, with a non-linear dose response; the results are summarized in an FDA review document rather than a full peer-reviewed publication. A separate human study reported the hexadecapeptide was safe and well tolerated.","Rodent studies show AOD9604 stimulates lipolysis and reduces fat mass without elevating growth hormone levels or promoting growth, consistent with its design as a lipolytic hGH C-terminal fragment analog.","Cell-based and ex vivo adipocyte assays demonstrate lipolytic activity for the fragment, supporting a GH-receptor-independent lipolytic mechanism.","Claims that AOD9604 is an effective 'fat-burning' peptide in humans rest on limited unpublished or partially published trial data; its widespread bodybuilding use outpaces published clinical evidence.",[6475,6479,6482],{"finding":6476,"source":6477,"year":23,"link":6478,"evidenceLevel":46},"In a placebo-controlled dose-ranging trial, all AOD9604 doses produced greater 12-week weight loss than placebo with a non-linear dose-response relationship; the data are cited in an FDA review document, not a full peer-reviewed journal article.","Placebo-controlled dose-ranging trial (data cited in FDA document)","https://www.fda.gov/media/183584/download",{"finding":6480,"source":6481,"year":23,"link":23,"evidenceLevel":46},"A human study reported that the hexadecapeptide AOD9604 was safe and well tolerated in volunteers.","Human tolerability study (Journal of Obesity and Metabolism)",{"finding":6483,"source":6484,"year":1624,"link":6485,"evidenceLevel":46},"A 2026 peer-reviewed review of performance-enhancing peptides modulating the GH-IGF-1 axis catalogs AOD9604 as an hGH C-terminal fragment with human trial data but no approved therapeutic path forward.","Peer-reviewed narrative review (Frontiers in Endocrinology)","https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2026.1822475","No large, fully published randomized controlled trial of AOD9604 for weight loss exists; the key dose-ranging data are only summarized in an FDA document. The compound is not FDA approved, and long-term safety data for repeated use are lacking.","AOD9604 is a modified C-terminal fragment of human growth hormone (hGH residues 177-191) designed to retain lipolytic activity without stimulating GH secretion or growth. In clinical testing it was administered by subcutaneous injection; detailed published half-life data are limited.",[6489,6492,6495],{"question":6490,"answer":6491},"Is AOD9604 FDA approved for fat loss?","No. AOD9604 is not FDA approved for any indication; its use as a weight-loss or bodybuilding peptide is experimental/off-label.",{"question":6493,"answer":6494},"What does the human trial data actually show?","A placebo-controlled dose-ranging study summarized in an FDA document reported greater 12-week weight loss at all doses than placebo with a non-linear dose response; the full trial was not published in a peer-reviewed journal.",{"question":6496,"answer":6497},"Does AOD9604 raise growth hormone or IGF-1?","It is designed as a lipolytic hGH fragment that does not elevate GH; published chronic-use data are limited, and most mechanistic evidence comes from animal or cell models.",{"id":1928,"name":6499,"slug":6500,"description":6501,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":15,"views":6502,"shortDescription":6503,"peptideBenefits":6504,"benefits":6518,"peptideSideEffects":6523,"sideEffects":6529,"dosage":6532,"mechanism":6533,"safetyNote":6534,"citations":6535,"research":6562,"statsCache":6563,"imageUrl":6565,"molecularWeight":6566,"molecularFormula":6567,"pubchemId":6568,"sequence":6445,"halfLife":6569,"casNumber":6447,"smiles":6570,"totalMentions":2222,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"aliases":6571,"researchAreas":6575,"evidence":6578,"keyStudies":6583,"limitations":6587,"pharmacology":6588,"faqs":6589,"lastReviewed":359},"Fragment 176-191","fragment-176-191","HGH Fragment 176-191 is a synthetic peptide derived from the C-terminal region of human growth hormone, specifically amino acids 176-191. This fragment was developed to isolate the fat-metabolizing properties of growth hormone while eliminating effects on blood glucose, IGF-1 elevation, and cellular proliferation associated with full-length HGH. Research demonstrates the fragment stimulates lipolysis (fat breakdown) and inhibits lipogenesis (new fat formation) through mechanisms distinct from GH receptor activation. Studies show it promotes fat loss without the hyperglycemic effects of growth hormone therapy. The peptide does not compete with endogenous growth hormone for receptor binding and does not induce antibody formation. Fragment 176-191 is related to AOD9604, which adds a tyrosine residue for improved stability. Research indicates potential applications for obesity treatment with a more favorable safety profile than growth hormone therapy. The fragment requires subcutaneous injection and is typically administered in divided doses to optimize fat-burning effects.",9,"HGH fragment specifically designed for fat loss",[6505,6509,6513,6515],{"id":6506,"benefit":6507,"benefitCategory":6508,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},406,"Targeted fat mobilization","Weight Loss",{"id":6510,"benefit":6511,"benefitCategory":6512,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},407,"No glucose/IGF-1 effects","Metabolic",{"id":6514,"benefit":6268,"benefitCategory":6508,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},408,{"id":6516,"benefit":6517,"benefitCategory":6508,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},409,"Lipolytic activity",[6519,6520,6521,6522],{"id":6506,"benefit":6507,"benefitCategory":6508,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":6510,"benefit":6511,"benefitCategory":6512,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":6514,"benefit":6268,"benefitCategory":6508,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":6516,"benefit":6517,"benefitCategory":6508,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},[6524,6527],{"id":6525,"sideEffect":983,"description":23,"severity":6526,"frequency":6526,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},240,"Unknown",{"id":6528,"sideEffect":1900,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":5477,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},241,[6530,6531],{"id":6525,"sideEffect":983,"description":23,"severity":6526,"frequency":6526,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":6528,"sideEffect":1900,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":5477,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"1-2mg per day, 2-4 weeks","Modified HGH fragment specifically targeting fat metabolism without affecting blood sugar","Research compound only. Not approved for human use. Limited safety data available.",[6536,6542,6548,6553,6558],{"id":6537,"title":6538,"authors":6539,"journal":6540,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":6541},560,"Human Growth Hormone Fragment 176-191 Peptide Enhances the Toxicity of Doxorubicin-Loaded Chitosan Nanoparticles Against MCF-7 Breast Cancer Cells.","Habibullah MM, Mohan S, Syed NK, Makeen HA, Jamal QMS, Alothaid H, Bantun F, Alhazmi A, Hakamy A, Kaabi YA, Samlan G, Lohani M, Thangavel N, Al-Kasim MA","Drug design, development and therapy","10.2147/DDDT.S367586",{"id":6543,"title":6544,"authors":6545,"journal":6546,"year":5186,"citationType":167,"doi":6547},561,"Hyperglycemic action of synthetic C-terminal fragments of human growth hormone.","Ng FM, Bornstein J","The American journal of physiology","10.1152/ajpendo.1978.234.5.E521",{"id":668,"title":6549,"authors":6550,"journal":6551,"year":290,"citationType":167,"doi":6552},"Identification of the RNA binding regions of SRP68/72 and SRP72 by systematic mutagenesis of human SRP RNA.","Yin J, Iakhiaeva E, Menichelli E, Zwieb C","RNA biology","10.4161/rna.4.3.5428",{"id":397,"title":6554,"authors":6555,"journal":6556,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":6557},"Testicular organoids: a new model to study the testicular microenvironment in vitro?","Alves-Lopes JP, Stukenborg JB","Human reproduction update","10.1093/humupd/dmx036",{"id":119,"title":6559,"authors":6560,"journal":822,"year":810,"citationType":167,"doi":6561},"The mechanism of the hyperglycaemic action of synthetic peptides related to the C-terminal sequence of human growth hormone.","Ma GY, Macaulay SL, Maggs JA, Armstrong JM, Bornstein J","10.1016/0304-4165(82)90033-2",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":2222,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":6564},"2026-01-05T22:12:13.333231","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/fragment-176-191.webp","1.7","C78H125N23O23S2","71300630","15-20 minutes","CC[C@H](C)[C@@H](C(=O)N[C@@H](C(C)C)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCC(=O)N)C(=O)N[C@H]1CSSC[C@H](NC(=O)[C@@H](NC(=O)CNC(=O)[C@@H](NC(=O)[C@@H](NC(=O)[C@@H](NC(=O)[C@@H](NC1=O)CCCNC(=N)N)CO)C(C)C)CCC(=O)O)CO)C(=O)NCC(=O)N[C@@H](CC2=CC=CC=C2)C(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@H](CCCNC(=N)N)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(C)C)NC(=O)[C@H](CC3=CC=CC=C3)N.CC(=O)O",[6572,6573,6249,6574],"HGH Fragment 176-191","AOD-9604 (related hGH 177-191 fragment)","hGH C-terminal lipolytic fragment",[6576,6364,6577],"Fat loss and lipolysis","Lipid metabolism",{"human":6579,"animal":6580,"inVitro":6581,"uncertain":6582},"The closely related compound AOD-9604 (hGH C-terminal fragment) was tested in Phase 2 obesity trials: a 12-week analysis reported greater weight loss at all doses versus placebo, with a non-linear dose response and the largest effect at 1 mg (about 0.22 kg/week vs 0.07 kg/week placebo). However, the larger Phase 2B 'OPTIONS' trial (536 enrolled, 502 randomized; oral AOD-9604 0.25/0.5/1 mg daily plus diet and exercise for 24 weeks) failed to show a significant difference in weight loss at 12 weeks, and the developer terminated the obesity program in 2007.","In-vivo studies in obese mice showed AOD-9604 suppressed weight gain without affecting lean body mass (as summarized in the FDA evaluation of the compound).","In-vitro studies indicate the hGH C-terminal fragment retains lipolytic activity while not binding the growth hormone receptor or stimulating growth (per literature compiled in the FDA evaluation).","The '176-191' fragment marketed for research is routinely conflated with AOD-9604, which itself failed its pivotal Phase 2B trial; neither has an approved indication, and fat-loss claims in humans are not supported by successful clinical programs.",[6584],{"finding":6585,"source":6586,"year":458,"link":6478,"evidenceLevel":46},"FDA evaluation of AOD-9604: 12-week data showed greater weight loss at all doses vs placebo with a non-linear dose response (largest at 1 mg), but the Phase 2B OPTIONS study (502 randomized) failed its primary endpoint and obesity development was terminated in 2007.","FDA Pharmacy Compounding Advisory Committee briefing document (bulk drug substance evaluation)","The pivotal Phase 2B trial failed its primary endpoint and development for obesity was discontinued; human data are largely summarized in regulatory documents; the peptide is unapproved and available only as a research compound, with no established dosing or safety profile.","AOD-9604 corresponds to amino acids 177-191 of human growth hormone, a C-terminal region outside the GH receptor-binding domain, designed to retain lipolytic activity without growth-promoting effects; the marketed '176-191' fragment is the 16-amino-acid C-terminal sequence. No approved dosing exists.",[6590,6593],{"question":6591,"answer":6592},"Is Fragment 176-191 / AOD-9604 approved for fat loss?","No. The related AOD-9604 failed its Phase 2B obesity trial and was never approved; the fragment is sold only as an unregulated research product.",{"question":6594,"answer":6595},"Does the fragment stimulate growth hormone?","No. It is a C-terminal hGH fragment that does not bind the growth hormone receptor and is not a GH secretagogue; its proposed effect is direct lipolysis.",{"id":6267,"name":6597,"slug":6598,"description":6599,"fdaApproved":28,"wadaBanned":15,"views":5,"shortDescription":6600,"peptideBenefits":6601,"benefits":6612,"peptideSideEffects":6618,"sideEffects":6644,"dosage":6653,"mechanism":6654,"safetyNote":6655,"athleteWarning":6656,"chemicalMakeup":6657,"citations":6658,"research":6805,"statsCache":6806,"imageUrl":6808,"molecularWeight":6809,"molecularFormula":6810,"drugbankId":6811,"pubchemId":6812,"sequence":6813,"halfLife":6814,"administrationRoute":540,"casNumber":6815,"smiles":6816,"totalMentions":2486,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"aliases":6817,"researchAreas":6822,"evidence":6827,"keyStudies":6832,"limitations":6845,"pharmacology":6846,"faqs":6847,"lastReviewed":359},"Liraglutide","liraglutide","Liraglutide is a glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonist with 97% amino acid sequence homology to native human GLP-1, modified with a fatty acid side chain enabling once-daily dosing through albumin binding. FDA-approved as Victoza for type 2 diabetes and Saxenda for chronic weight management, liraglutide works by enhancing glucose-dependent insulin secretion, suppressing glucagon release, slowing gastric emptying, and reducing appetite through central satiety pathways. Clinical trials demonstrate significant improvements in glycemic control (HbA1c reduction), body weight loss, and cardiovascular outcomes. The LEADER trial established cardiovascular safety and showed reduction in major adverse cardiovascular events. Research indicates benefits for non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) and potential neuroprotective effects. Liraglutide is administered via subcutaneous injection with gradual dose titration to minimize gastrointestinal side effects including nausea. The peptide represented a major advancement in incretin-based therapies and paved the way for newer, more potent GLP-1 receptor agonists.","GLP-1 agonist for diabetes and weight management",[6602,6604,6606,6608,6610],{"id":2990,"benefit":6603,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Proven weight loss",{"id":3766,"benefit":6605,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Blood sugar control",{"id":939,"benefit":6607,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Cardiovascular benefits",{"id":3772,"benefit":6609,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Appetite reduction",{"id":2286,"benefit":6611,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Beta cell preservation",[6613,6614,6615,6616,6617],{"id":2990,"benefit":6603,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3766,"benefit":6605,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":939,"benefit":6607,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3772,"benefit":6609,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":2286,"benefit":6611,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},[6619,6622,6624,6626,6629,6630,6636,6640],{"id":1636,"sideEffect":6620,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":6621,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Constipation","https://reddit.com/r/longevity/comments/1oautra/glp1_receptor_agonists_at_the_crossroads_of/",{"id":5144,"sideEffect":6623,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":6621,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Rare pancreatitis",{"id":5139,"sideEffect":6625,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":6621,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Diarrhea",{"id":6627,"sideEffect":6628,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":6621,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},20,"Vomiting",{"id":5134,"sideEffect":1272,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":6621,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":6631,"sideEffect":1878,"description":23,"severity":1879,"frequency":6632,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":6633,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":6597,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":6634,"management":6635,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},485,"Very common (39-40%)","accessdata.fda.gov","Days","Slow escalation",{"id":6637,"sideEffect":1878,"description":23,"severity":1879,"frequency":6638,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":6633,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":6597,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":6634,"management":6639,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},486,"Common (20-21%)","Hydration",{"id":6641,"sideEffect":398,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":6642,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":6633,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":6597,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":6643,"management":6007,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},487,"Common (3-7 bpm)","Weeks",[6645,6646,6647,6648,6649,6650,6651,6652],{"id":1636,"sideEffect":6620,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":6621,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":5144,"sideEffect":6623,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":6621,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":5139,"sideEffect":6625,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":6621,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":6627,"sideEffect":6628,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":6621,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":5134,"sideEffect":1272,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":6621,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":6631,"sideEffect":1878,"description":23,"severity":1879,"frequency":6632,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":6633,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":6597,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":6634,"management":6635,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},{"id":6637,"sideEffect":1878,"description":23,"severity":1879,"frequency":6638,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":6633,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":6597,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":6634,"management":6639,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},{"id":6641,"sideEffect":398,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":6642,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":6633,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":6597,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":6643,"management":6007,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},"0.6-3.0 mg Daily","GLP-1 receptor agonist for weight loss and diabetes management","FDA approved for diabetes and obesity. Well-established safety profile.","Not WADA banned - safe for competitive athletes when used under medical supervision","Acylated GLP-1 analog, 31 amino acids with C16 fatty acid side chain",[6659,6664,6669,6674,6679,6684,6690,6696,6701,6707,6713,6719,6725,6731,6737,6743,6749,6754,6760,6765,6770,6776,6782,6788,6794,6799],{"id":365,"title":6660,"authors":155,"journal":6661,"year":478,"citationType":2643,"doi":6662,"researchPaperId":6663},"Liraglutide for Weight Management in Adults: Updated Meta-analysis","JAMA","10.1001/jama.2023.19634","pubmed_38015216",{"id":6665,"title":6666,"authors":6667,"journal":3069,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":6668},1057,"Liraglutide for the Treatment of Obesity: Analyzing Published Reviews.","Pastor R, Tur JA","10.2174/1381612825666190701155737",{"id":6670,"title":6671,"authors":6672,"journal":3369,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":6673},1049,"Liraglutide attenuates type 2 diabetes mellitus-associated non-alcoholic fatty liver disease by activating AMPK/ACC signaling and inhibiting ferroptosis.","Guo T, Yan W, Cui X, Liu N, Wei X, Sun Y, Fan K, Liu J, Zhu Y, Wang Z, Zhang Y, Chen L","10.1186/s10020-023-00721-7",{"id":6675,"title":6676,"authors":6677,"journal":3183,"year":1152,"citationType":167,"doi":6678},1050,"The arcuate nucleus mediates GLP-1 receptor agonist liraglutide-dependent weight loss.","Secher A, Jelsing J, Baquero AF, Hecksher-Sørensen J, Cowley MA, Dalbøge LS, Hansen G, Grove KL, Pyke C, Raun K, Schäffer L, Tang-Christensen M, Verma S, Witgen BM, Vrang N, Bjerre Knudsen L","10.1172/JCI75276",{"id":6680,"title":6681,"authors":6682,"journal":786,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":6683},1051,"Liraglutide Promotes Diabetic Wound Healing via Myo1c/Dock5.","Zhang Q, Zhang C, Kang C, Zhu J, He Q, Li H, Tong Q, Wang M, Zhang L, Xiong X, Wang Y, Qu H, Zheng H, Zheng Y","10.1002/advs.202405987",{"id":6685,"title":6686,"authors":6687,"journal":6688,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":6689},1052,"Empagliflozin and liraglutide ameliorate HFpEF in mice via augmenting the Erbb4 signaling pathway.","Ni XY, Feng XJ, Wang ZH, Zhang Y, Little PJ, Cao Y, Xu SW, Tang LQ, Weng JP","Acta pharmacologica Sinica","10.1038/s41401-024-01265-0",{"id":6691,"title":6692,"authors":6693,"journal":6694,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":6695},1053,"Effect of liraglutide 3.0 mg in individuals with obesity and moderate or severe obstructive sleep apnea: the SCALE Sleep Apnea randomized clinical trial.","Blackman A, Foster GD, Zammit G, Rosenberg R, Aronne L, Wadden T, Claudius B, Jensen CB, Mignot E","International journal of obesity (2005)","10.1038/ijo.2016.52",{"id":6697,"title":6698,"authors":6699,"journal":1006,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":6700},1054,"Liraglutide, a glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonist, exerts analgesic, anti-inflammatory and anti-degradative actions in osteoarthritis.","Meurot C, Martin C, Sudre L, Breton J, Bougault C, Rattenbach R, Bismuth K, Jacques C, Berenbaum F","10.1038/s41598-022-05323-7",{"id":6702,"title":6703,"authors":6704,"journal":6705,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":6706},1055,"Psychiatric adverse events associated with semaglutide, liraglutide and tirzepatide: a pharmacovigilance analysis of individual case safety reports submitted to the EudraVigilance database.","Tobaiqy M, Elkout H","International journal of clinical pharmacy","10.1007/s11096-023-01694-7",{"id":6708,"title":6709,"authors":6710,"journal":6711,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":6712},1056,"Liraglutide innovations: a comprehensive review of patents (2014-2024).","Pandey A, Goyal AK","Pharmaceutical patent analyst","10.1080/20468954.2024.2366693",{"id":6714,"title":6715,"authors":6716,"journal":6717,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":6718},1058,"Liraglutide attenuates angiotensin II-induced aortic dissection and aortic aneurysm via inhibiting M1 macrophage polarization in APOE (-/-) mice.","Zhang K, Li R, Matniyaz Y, Yu R, Pan J, Liu W, Wang D","Biochemical pharmacology","10.1016/j.bcp.2024.116170",{"id":6720,"title":6721,"authors":6722,"journal":6723,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":6724},1059,"Efficacy and Safety of Liraglutide Added to Insulin Treatment in Type 1 Diabetes: The ADJUNCT ONE Treat-To-Target Randomized Trial.","Mathieu C, Zinman B, Hemmingsson JU, Woo V, Colman P, Christiansen E, Linder M, Bode B, ADJUNCT ONE Investigators","Diabetes care","10.2337/dc16-0691",{"id":6726,"title":6727,"authors":6728,"journal":6729,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":6730},1060,"Cardiovascular Effects of Liraglutide.","Mikhail N","Current hypertension reviews","10.2174/1573402114666180507152620",{"id":6732,"title":6733,"authors":6734,"journal":6735,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":6736},1061,"Liraglutide for psychiatric disorders: clinical evidence and challenges.","Camkurt MA, Lavagnino L, Zhang XY, Teixeira AL","Hormone molecular biology and clinical investigation","10.1515/hmbci-2018-0031",{"id":6738,"title":6739,"authors":6740,"journal":6741,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":6742},1062,"Efficacy and safety of liraglutide in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and severe obstructive sleep apnea.","Jiang W, Li W, Cheng J, Li W, Cheng F","Sleep & breathing = Schlaf & Atmung","10.1007/s11325-022-02768-y",{"id":6744,"title":6745,"authors":6746,"journal":6747,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":6748},1063,"Liraglutide for the prevention of major adverse cardiovascular events in diabetic patients.","Madsbad S","Expert review of cardiovascular therapy","10.1080/14779072.2019.1615444",{"id":6750,"title":6751,"authors":6752,"journal":6753,"year":1122,"citationType":167},1064,"[Liraglutide].","Takahashi T, Odawara M","Nihon rinsho. Japanese journal of clinical medicine",{"id":6755,"title":6756,"authors":6757,"journal":6758,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":6759},1065,"Liraglutide Improves Diabetic Cardiomyopathy by Downregulation of Cardiac Inflammatory and Apoptosis Markers.","Gupta P, Ekbbal R","Current drug research reviews","10.2174/0125899775243787231103075804",{"id":6761,"title":6762,"authors":6763,"journal":2696,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":6764},1066,"Liraglutide alleviates ferroptosis in renal ischemia reperfusion injury via inhibiting macrophage extracellular trap formation.","Sun Z, Zhang F, Gao Z, Wu J, Bi Q, Zheng X, Zhang J, Cao P, Wang W","10.1016/j.intimp.2024.113258",{"id":6766,"title":6767,"authors":6768,"journal":3183,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":6769},1067,"GLP-1R-positive neurons in the lateral septum mediate the anorectic and weight-lowering effects of liraglutide in mice.","Chen Z, Deng X, Shi C, Jing H, Tian Y, Zhong J, Chen G, Xu Y, Luo Y, Zhu Y","10.1172/JCI178239",{"id":6771,"title":6772,"authors":6773,"journal":6774,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":6775},1068,"Liraglutide and learning.","Wiseman S","Nature neuroscience","10.1038/s41593-023-01466-6",{"id":6777,"title":6778,"authors":6779,"journal":6780,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":6781},1069,"Liraglutide: A New Option for the Treatment of Obesity.","Nuffer WA, Trujillo JM","Pharmacotherapy","10.1002/phar.1639",{"id":6783,"title":6784,"authors":6785,"journal":6786,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":6787},1070,"Liraglutide: a review of its use in the management of obesity.","Scott LJ","Drugs","10.1007/s40265-015-0408-8",{"id":6789,"title":6790,"authors":6791,"journal":6792,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":6793},1071,"Liraglutide's Effect on Weight Management in Subjects With Pre-diabetes: A Systematic Review & Meta-Analysis.","Alsanea S, Alkofide H, Almadi B, Almohammed O, Alwhaibi A, Alrabiah Z, Kalagi N","Endocrine practice : official journal of the American College of Endocrinology and the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists","10.1016/j.eprac.2024.05.009",{"id":6795,"title":6796,"authors":6797,"journal":516,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":6798},1072,"Liraglutide and its Neuroprotective Properties-Focus on Possible Biochemical Mechanisms in Alzheimer's Disease and Cerebral Ischemic Events.","Wiciński M, Socha M, Malinowski B, Wódkiewicz E, Walczak M, Górski K, Słupski M, Pawlak-Osińska K","10.3390/ijms20051050",{"id":6800,"title":6801,"authors":6802,"journal":6803,"year":1122,"citationType":167,"doi":6804},1073,"Liraglutide for the treatment of type 2 diabetes.","Shyangdan D, Cummins E, Royle P, Waugh N","Health technology assessment (Winchester, England)","10.3310/hta15suppl1/09",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":2486,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":6807},"2026-01-05T22:12:00.040869","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/liraglutide.webp","3751.20","C172H265N43O51","DB06655","16134956","MKSIYFVAGLFVMLVQGSWQRSLQDTEEKSRSFSASQADPLSDPDQMNEDKRHSQGTFTSDYSKYLDSRRAQDFVQWLMNTKRNRNNIAKRHDEFERHAEGTFTSDVSSYLEGQAAKEFIAWLVKGRGRRDFPEEVAIVEELGRRHADGSFSDEMNTILDNLAARDFINWLIQTKITDRK","~13 hours","204656-20-2","CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC(=O)N[C@@H](CCC(=O)NCCCC[C@@H](C(=O)N[C@@H](CCC(=O)O)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC1=CC=CC=C1)C(=O)N[C@@H]([C@@H](C)CC)C(=O)N[C@@H](C)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC2=CNC3=CC=CC=C32)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(C)C)C(=O)N[C@@H](C(C)C)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCNC(=N)N)C(=O)NCC(=O)N[C@@H](CCCNC(=N)N)C(=O)NCC(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@H](C)NC(=O)[C@H](C)NC(=O)[C@H](CCC(=O)N)NC(=O)CNC(=O)[C@H](CCC(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(C)C)NC(=O)[C@H](CC4=CC=C(C=C4)O)NC(=O)[C@H](CO)NC(=O)[C@H](CO)NC(=O)[C@H](C(C)C)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@H](CO)NC(=O)[C@H]([C@@H](C)O)NC(=O)[C@H](CC5=CC=CC=C5)NC(=O)[C@H]([C@@H](C)O)NC(=O)CNC(=O)[C@H](CCC(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@H](C)NC(=O)[C@H](CC6=CN=CN6)N)C(=O)O",[6818,6819,6820,6821],"Victoza","Saxenda","NN2211","GLP-1 receptor agonist (liraglutide)",[6823,6824,6825,6826],"Type 2 diabetes management","Obesity and weight management","Cardiovascular outcomes","Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH)",{"human":6828,"animal":6829,"inVitro":6830,"uncertain":6831},"Liraglutide is FDA approved (Victoza for type 2 diabetes, 2010; Saxenda for chronic weight management, 2014). The LEADER trial (NEJM 2016) showed liraglutide reduced major adverse cardiovascular events in high-risk type 2 diabetes patients; the SCALE trials showed 3.0 mg/day produced meaningful weight loss in adults with obesity; and the phase 2 LEAN trial found liraglutide improved NASH resolution and fibrosis in some patients.","Rodent studies of GLP-1 receptor agonism support effects on appetite, glucose-dependent insulin secretion, and beta-cell function that underlie the clinical profile.","Cell-based studies characterize liraglutide as a potent GLP-1 receptor agonist with ~97% homology to native GLP-1 and albumin-binding-mediated prolongation of action.","Off-label use purely for cosmetic weight loss, and proposed neuroprotective or longevity benefits, remain unproven; benefits depend on continued treatment, with weight regain after discontinuation.",[6833,6837,6841],{"finding":6834,"source":6835,"year":1049,"link":6836,"evidenceLevel":46},"In 9,340 patients with type 2 diabetes and high cardiovascular risk, liraglutide reduced the rate of major adverse cardiovascular events versus placebo (LEADER trial).","Randomized, double-blind cardiovascular outcomes trial (NEJM)","https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1603827",{"finding":6838,"source":6839,"year":1516,"link":6840,"evidenceLevel":46},"In the SCALE Obesity and Prediabetes trial, liraglutide 3.0 mg/day produced significantly greater weight loss than placebo in adults with overweight/obesity.","Randomized, double-blind trial (NEJM)","https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1411892",{"finding":6842,"source":6843,"year":1049,"link":6844,"evidenceLevel":46},"In the phase 2 LEAN trial, liraglutide 1.8 mg/day led to more NASH resolution than placebo in patients with non-alcoholic steatohepatitis.","Phase 2 randomized trial (Lancet)","https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(15)00803-X","Common side effects include nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea, requiring dose titration; increased risks of gallbladder disease and signals for pancreatitis have been reported, and weight is typically regained after stopping. Long-term use in normal-weight individuals for cosmetic purposes has not been studied.","Once-daily subcutaneous injection; GLP-1 receptor agonist with ~97% sequence homology to native GLP-1, with fatty-acid derivatization enabling albumin binding and a terminal half-life of ~13 hours. Actions include glucose-dependent insulin secretion, glucagon suppression, slowed gastric emptying, and central appetite reduction.",[6848,6851,6854],{"question":6849,"answer":6850},"Is liraglutide the same as semaglutide?","No — both are GLP-1 receptor agonists, but liraglutide is dosed once daily, has ~97% homology to native GLP-1, and is generally less potent for weight loss than semaglutide.",{"question":6852,"answer":6853},"What is liraglutide approved for?","Type 2 diabetes (Victoza) and chronic weight management in adults with obesity, or overweight plus a weight-related comorbidity (Saxenda).",{"question":6855,"answer":6856},"How is liraglutide taken?","By subcutaneous injection once daily, titrated up over several weeks to reduce gastrointestinal side effects.",{"id":532,"name":6858,"slug":6859,"description":6860,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":15,"views":2486,"shortDescription":6861,"researchStatus":6862,"peptideBenefits":6863,"benefits":6875,"peptideSideEffects":6881,"sideEffects":6897,"dosage":6903,"mechanism":6904,"safetyNote":6905,"athleteWarning":6906,"citations":6907,"research":7041,"statsCache":7042,"imageUrl":7044,"molecularWeight":7045,"molecularFormula":7046,"pubchemId":7047,"sequence":6813,"halfLife":7048,"casNumber":7049,"smiles":7050,"totalMentions":8,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"protocols":7051,"aliases":7072,"researchAreas":7077,"evidence":7082,"keyStudies":7087,"limitations":7104,"pharmacology":7105,"faqs":7106,"lastReviewed":359},"Mazdutide","mazdutide","Mazdutide (IBI362, LY3305677) is an investigational once-weekly long-acting peptide that acts as a dual agonist of glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and glucagon receptors for treatment of obesity and metabolic disorders. The dual mechanism combines GLP-1's effects on insulin secretion, appetite suppression, and gastric emptying with glucagon's ability to increase energy expenditure and hepatic fat oxidation. This triple-pronged approach aims to maximize metabolic benefits while addressing limitations of single-receptor agonists. Clinical trials have demonstrated significant weight loss and improvements in glycemic control. The glucagon receptor agonism may provide additional benefits for liver fat reduction relevant to metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD). Mazdutide is being developed jointly by Eli Lilly and Innovent Biologics, with advanced clinical development in China. Phase 3 trials are evaluating efficacy for obesity and type 2 diabetes. The compound represents the growing trend toward multi-receptor incretin-based therapies that provide comprehensive metabolic benefits.","Triple GLP-1/GIP/glucagon receptor agonist for metabolic optimization","Phase 3 Clinical Trials - GLP-1/Glucagon dual agonist",[6864,6867,6868,6870,6872],{"id":6865,"benefit":6866,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},39,"Weight loss",{"id":1221,"benefit":6605,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":16,"benefit":6869,"benefitCategory":23,"source":5900,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Appetite suppression",{"id":1217,"benefit":6871,"benefitCategory":23,"source":5900,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Enhanced metabolism",{"id":6873,"benefit":6874,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},43,"Diabetes management",[6876,6877,6878,6879,6880],{"id":6865,"benefit":6866,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":1221,"benefit":6605,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":16,"benefit":6869,"benefitCategory":23,"source":5900,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":1217,"benefit":6871,"benefitCategory":23,"source":5900,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":6873,"benefit":6874,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},[6882,6886,6890,6893,6896],{"id":6883,"sideEffect":1878,"description":23,"severity":1879,"frequency":6884,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":6885,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":6858,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":6634,"management":6639,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},491,"Very common (36%)","nejm.org",{"id":6887,"sideEffect":1878,"description":23,"severity":1879,"frequency":6888,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":6885,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":6858,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":6634,"management":6889,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},492,"Common (23%)","Antiemetics",{"id":6891,"sideEffect":6625,"description":23,"severity":1669,"frequency":5476,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":6892,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},252,"within days",{"id":6894,"sideEffect":6895,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":5476,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":6892,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},253,"Decreased appetite",{"id":3262,"sideEffect":1272,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":5476,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":6892,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},[6898,6899,6900,6901,6902],{"id":6883,"sideEffect":1878,"description":23,"severity":1879,"frequency":6884,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":6885,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":6858,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":6634,"management":6639,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},{"id":6887,"sideEffect":1878,"description":23,"severity":1879,"frequency":6888,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":6885,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":6858,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":6634,"management":6889,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},{"id":6891,"sideEffect":6625,"description":23,"severity":1669,"frequency":5476,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":6892,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":6894,"sideEffect":6895,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":5476,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":6892,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":3262,"sideEffect":1272,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":5476,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":6892,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Under clinical investigation, consult healthcare provider","Dual receptor agonism targeting both GLP-1 and glucagon pathways","Investigational drug in clinical trials. Not approved for use outside of clinical studies.","Not WADA banned - investigational diabetes medication safe for competitive athletes under medical supervision",[6908,6913,6918,6923,6928,6934,6940,6945,6951,6957,6962,6968,6974,6979,6985,6991,6997,7002,7007,7012,7018,7024,7030,7035],{"id":6909,"title":6910,"authors":6911,"journal":4167,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":6912},1133,"Once-Weekly Mazdutide in Chinese Adults with Obesity or Overweight.","Ji L, Jiang H, Bi Y, Li H, Tian J, Liu D, Zhao Y, Qiu W, Huang C, Chen L, Zhong S, Han J, Zhang Y, Lian Q, Yang P, Lv L, Gu J, Liu Z, Deng H, Wang Y, Li L, Pei L, Qian L, GLORY-1 Investigators","10.1056/NEJMoa2411528",{"id":6914,"title":6915,"authors":6916,"journal":4434,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":6917},1134,"A phase 2 randomised controlled trial of mazdutide in Chinese overweight adults or adults with obesity.","Ji L, Jiang H, Cheng Z, Qiu W, Liao L, Zhang Y, Li X, Pang S, Zhang L, Chen L, Yang T, Li Y, Qu S, Wen J, Gu J, Deng H, Wang Y, Li L, Han-Zhang H, Ma Q, Qian L","10.1038/s41467-023-44067-4",{"id":6919,"title":6920,"authors":6921,"journal":6723,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":6922},1135,"Efficacy and Safety of Mazdutide in Chinese Patients With Type 2 Diabetes: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Phase 2 Trial.","Zhang B, Cheng Z, Chen J, Zhang X, Liu D, Jiang H, Ma G, Wang X, Gan S, Sun J, Jin P, Yi J, Shi B, Ma J, Ye S, Wang G, Ji L, Gu X, Yu T, An P, Deng H, Li H, Li L, Ma Q, Qian L, Yang W","10.2337/dc23-1287",{"id":6924,"title":6925,"authors":6926,"journal":6786,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":6927},1136,"Mazdutide: First Approval.","Shirley M","10.1007/s40265-025-02249-y",{"id":6929,"title":6930,"authors":6931,"journal":6932,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":6933},1137,"Safety and efficacy of a GLP-1 and glucagon receptor dual agonist mazdutide (IBI362) 9 mg and 10 mg in Chinese adults with overweight or obesity: A randomised, placebo-controlled, multiple-ascending-dose phase 1b trial.","Ji L, Gao L, Jiang H, Yang J, Yu L, Wen J, Cai C, Deng H, Feng L, Song B, Ma Q, Qian L","EClinicalMedicine","10.1016/j.eclinm.2022.101691",{"id":6935,"title":6936,"authors":6937,"journal":6938,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":6939},1138,"Mazdutide, a dual agonist targeting GLP-1R and GCGR, mitigates diabetes-associated cognitive dysfunction: mechanistic insights from multi-omics analysis.","Dong W, Bai J, Yuan Q, Zhang Y, Zhang Y, Zhang Z, Yang M, Li H, Zhao Z, Jiang H","EBioMedicine","10.1016/j.ebiom.2025.105791",{"id":6941,"title":6942,"authors":6943,"journal":1151,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":6944},1139,"Efficacy and safety of Mazdutide on weight loss among diabetic and non-diabetic patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.","Nalisa DL, Cuboia N, Dyab E, Jackson IL, Felix HJ, Shoki P, Mubiana M, Oyedeji-Amusa M, Azevedo L, Jiang H","10.3389/fendo.2024.1309118",{"id":6946,"title":6947,"authors":6948,"journal":6949,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":6950},1140,"Mazdutide Versus Dulaglutide for Weight Loss and Diabetes Management: Meta-Analysis of Randomized Clinical Trials.","Ayesh H, Ayesh S, Niswender K","American journal of therapeutics","10.1097/MJT.0000000000001756",{"id":6952,"title":6953,"authors":6954,"journal":6955,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":6956},1141,"Emerging pharmacotherapies for obesity: A systematic review.","Kokkorakis M, Chakhtoura M, Rhayem C, Al Rifai J, Ghezzawi M, Valenzuela-Vallejo L, Mantzoros CS","Pharmacological reviews","10.1124/pharmrev.123.001045",{"id":6958,"title":6959,"authors":6960,"journal":4167,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":6961},1142,"Once-Weekly Mazdutide in Obesity or Overweight.","Zhang Y, Yu L, Liu ZT","10.1056/NEJMc2509841",{"id":6963,"title":6964,"authors":6965,"journal":6966,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":6967},1143,"Mazdutide reduces body weight in adults with overweight or obesity: A high-dose Phase 1 trial.","Bhattachar SN, Tham LS, Li Y, Chua L, Ng SX, Tang Y, Ibriga H, Ni W, Gurbuz S, Mather KJ, Thomas MK","Diabetes, obesity & metabolism","10.1111/dom.70040",{"id":6969,"title":6970,"authors":6971,"journal":6972,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":6973},1144,"Seven glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists and polyagonists for weight loss in patients with obesity or overweight: an updated systematic review and network meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.","Xie Z, Zheng G, Liang Z, Li M, Deng W, Cao W","Metabolism: clinical and experimental","10.1016/j.metabol.2024.156038",{"id":6975,"title":6976,"authors":6977,"journal":3059,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":6978},1145,"Multifunctional incretin peptides in therapies for type 2 diabetes, obesity and associated co-morbidities.","Bailey CJ, Flatt PR, Conlon JM","10.1016/j.peptides.2025.171380",{"id":6980,"title":6981,"authors":6982,"journal":6983,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":6984},1146,"Oral glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists and combinations of entero-pancreatic hormones as treatments for adults with type 2 diabetes: where are we now?","Gogineni P, Melson E, Papamargaritis D, Davies M","Expert opinion on pharmacotherapy","10.1080/14656566.2024.2356254",{"id":6986,"title":6987,"authors":6988,"journal":6989,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":6990},1147,"Novel GLP-1-Based Medications for Type 2 Diabetes and Obesity.","Son JW, le Roux CW, Blüher M, Nauck MA, Lim S","Endocrine reviews","10.1210/endrev/bnaf036",{"id":6992,"title":6993,"authors":6994,"journal":6995,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":6996},1148,"Mazdutide versus Semaglutide for the treatment of type 2 diabetes and obesity: Rationale, design and baseline data of DREAMS-3 phase 3 trial.","Luo Y, Jiang H, Shi B, Cai H, Wang H, Li S, Qiu W, Li Y, Zhou R, Deng H, Guo Q, Li L, Pei L, Zhang HH, Qian L, Ji L","Contemporary clinical trials","10.1016/j.cct.2025.108150",{"id":6998,"title":6999,"authors":7000,"journal":4434,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":7001},1149,"A phase 1b randomised controlled trial of a glucagon-like peptide-1 and glucagon receptor dual agonist IBI362 (LY3305677) in Chinese patients with type 2 diabetes.","Jiang H, Pang S, Zhang Y, Yu T, Liu M, Deng H, Li L, Feng L, Song B, Han-Zhang H, Ma Q, Qian L, Yang W","10.1038/s41467-022-31328-x",{"id":7003,"title":7004,"authors":7005,"journal":1151,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":7006},1150,"Comparative efficacy of incretin drugs on glycemic control, body weight, and blood pressure in adults with overweight or obesity and with/without type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and network meta-analysis.","Liu S, Hu J, Zhao C, Liu H, He C","10.3389/fendo.2025.1513641",{"id":7008,"title":7009,"authors":7010,"journal":1151,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":7011},1151,"Case Report: Efficacy and safety of dose-escalated Mazdutide, a GLP-1/GCGR dual agonist, in an adolescent with obesity, type 2 diabetes, and hyperuricemia.","Cheng W, Chen Z, Li P, Zhang Y, Ma Y, Liu P, Jiang H","10.3389/fendo.2025.1654506",{"id":7013,"title":7014,"authors":7015,"journal":7016,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":7017},1152,"Approved and Emerging Hormone-Based Anti-Obesity Medications: A Review Article.","Sidrak WR, Kalra S, Kalhan A","Indian journal of endocrinology and metabolism","10.4103/ijem.ijem_442_23",{"id":7019,"title":7020,"authors":7021,"journal":7022,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":7023},1153,"Safety and efficacy of GLP-1 and glucagon receptor dual agonist for the treatment of type 2 diabetes and obesity: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.","Deng B, Ruan T, Lu W, Ying J, Li S, Zhou R, Mu D","Endocrine","10.1007/s12020-024-03857-6",{"id":7025,"title":7026,"authors":7027,"journal":7028,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":7029},1154,"Multiparametric MRI Evaluation of Liver Fat and Iron after Glucagon-like Peptide-1 Receptor and Glucagon Receptor Dual-Agonist Treatment in a High-Fat Diet-induced Mouse Model.","Xia H, Min Y, Wang Y, Gao S, Wang H, Yan F, Liu R, Wang J, Gu X, Bo T","Radiology","10.1148/radiol.243780",{"id":7031,"title":7032,"authors":7033,"journal":6966,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":7034},1155,"Shared mechanistic pathways of glucagon signalling: Unlocking its potential for treating obesity, metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease, and other cardio-kidney-metabolic conditions.","Neff GW","10.1111/dom.70148",{"id":7036,"title":7037,"authors":7038,"journal":7039,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":7040},1156,"Review: Special Issue: Real-world evidence on the use of GLP1 receptor agonists: Emerging concepts in obesity management: focus on glucagon receptor agonist combinations.","Anderson SL","Drugs in context","10.7573/dic.2025-4-8",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":8,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":7043},"2026-01-05T22:12:01.160047","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/mazdutide.webp","4.5","C207H317N45O65","167312357","~1 week (estimated from class)","2259884-03-0","C[C@H]([C@@H](C(=O)N[C@@H](CC1=CC=CC=C1)C(=O)N[C@@H]([C@@H](C)O)C(=O)N[C@@H](CO)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(=O)O)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC2=CC=C(C=C2)O)C(=O)N[C@@H](CO)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCCN)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC3=CC=C(C=C3)O)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(C)C)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(=O)O)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCC(=O)O)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCCN)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCCN)C(=O)N[C@@H](C)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCCNC(=O)COCCOCCNC(=O)COCCOCCNC(=O)CC[C@@H](C(=O)O)NC(=O)CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC(=O)O)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCC(=O)O)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC4=CC=CC=C4)C(=O)N[C@@H](C(C)C)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCC(=O)O)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC5=CNC6=CC=CC=C65)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(C)C)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(C)C)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCC(=O)O)C(=O)NCC(=O)NCC(=O)N7CCC[C@H]7C(=O)N[C@@H](CO)C(=O)NCC(=O)N)NC(=O)CNC(=O)[C@H](CCC(=O)N)NC(=O)C(C)(C)NC(=O)[C@H](CC8=CNC=N8)N)O",[7052,7057,7060,7063,7066,7069],{"name":7053,"dose":7054,"frequency":7055,"route":7056},"Weight loss initiation (3mg target)","1.5mg → 3mg","Once weekly","SubQ injection",{"name":7058,"dose":7059,"frequency":7055,"route":7056},"Weight loss progression (4.5mg target)","1.5mg → 3mg → 4.5mg",{"name":7061,"dose":7062,"frequency":7055,"route":7056},"Weight loss optimization (6mg target)","2mg → 4mg → 6mg",{"name":7064,"dose":7065,"frequency":7055,"route":7056},"Maximum weight loss (9mg target)","3mg → 6mg → 9mg",{"name":7067,"dose":7068,"frequency":7055,"route":7056},"T2D management (mild-moderate)","3-4.5mg weekly",{"name":7070,"dose":7071,"frequency":7055,"route":7056},"T2D with obesity (intensive)","6-9mg weekly",[7073,7074,7075,7076],"IBI362","LY3305677","GCG/GLP-1 dual agonist","Glucagon/GLP-1 receptor dual agonist",[6364,7078,7079,7080,7081],"Type 2 diabetes","MASLD / liver fat","Weight management","Metabolic disease",{"human":7083,"animal":7084,"inVitro":7085,"uncertain":7086},"Mazdutide (once-weekly SC) is in advanced clinical development for obesity and type 2 diabetes. A phase 2 trial in 248 Chinese adults with overweight/obesity showed 24-week weight reductions of -6.7% (3 mg), -10.4% (4.5 mg) and -11.3% (6 mg) vs +1.0% placebo. Phase 2 data in Chinese patients with type 2 diabetes showed significant reductions in HbA1c and weight. The GLORY-2 phase 3 trial reported ~20% weight loss with 9 mg mazdutide in Chinese adults with obesity, and a head-to-head phase 3 trial (DREAMS-3) showed superiority over semaglutide for glycemic control and weight loss in T2D/obesity. It received NMPA approval in China (July 2025) for chronic weight management — the first approved dual GCG/GLP-1 receptor agonist — but is not FDA approved.","Dual GCG/GLP-1 receptor agonists reduce body weight and improve metabolism in mouse models, and mazdutide reduced liver fat in metabolic disease models, supporting the dual-agonist rationale.","Mazdutide is a balanced GLP-1 receptor and glucagon receptor agonist engineered as a long-acting, once-weekly peptide (fatty-acid acylated); receptor-activity profiling was established in cell assays.","Long-term cardiovascular outcomes and durability beyond 48 weeks are not yet established; glucagon agonism-related safety (glucose excursions, heart-rate effects) requires continued monitoring. Data are largely from Chinese populations.",[7088,7092,7096,7100],{"finding":7089,"source":7090,"year":478,"link":7091,"evidenceLevel":46},"Phase 2 trial in 248 Chinese adults with overweight/obesity: 24-week weight loss was -6.7% (3 mg), -10.4% (4.5 mg) and -11.3% (6 mg) vs +1.0% placebo, all statistically significant; most common adverse events were diarrhea, nausea and upper respiratory tract infection.","Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 2 trial (Nat Commun)","https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44067-4",{"finding":7093,"source":7094,"year":1624,"link":7095,"evidenceLevel":46},"Phase 3 GLORY-2 trial: 9 mg once-weekly mazdutide produced approximately 20% weight reduction in Chinese adults with obesity at week 48.","Phase 3 randomized clinical trial (JAMA)","https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2026.8142",{"finding":7097,"source":7098,"year":157,"link":7099,"evidenceLevel":46},"Mazdutide received NMPA approval in China (July 2025) for chronic weight management, becoming the first dual GCG/GLP-1 receptor agonist approved for weight management worldwide.","Regulatory approval (NMPA, China)","https://en.innoventbio.com/InvestorsAndMedia/PressReleaseDetail?key=546",{"finding":7101,"source":7102,"year":157,"link":7103,"evidenceLevel":46},"Phase 3 head-to-head trial (DREAMS-3) showed mazdutide was superior to semaglutide for both glycemic control (HbA1c) and weight loss in Chinese adults with type 2 diabetes and obesity (results announced Oct 2025).","Phase 3 head-to-head randomized trial (design/baseline published in Contemporary Clinical Trials; results announced)","https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cct.2025.108150","Approval and most phase 3 data are from China and Asian populations; FDA approval is pending. Gastrointestinal adverse events are common; long-term safety, cardiovascular outcomes, and durability data are incomplete. The final DREAMS-3 manuscript data should be verified against the published record.","Mazdutide (IBI362/LY3305677) is a once-weekly, subcutaneously administered, fatty-acid-acylated peptide that agonizes both the glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor and the glucagon receptor. GLP-1 agonism drives appetite suppression and insulinotropic effects; glucagon agonism increases energy expenditure and hepatic fat oxidation. Phase 2 doses ranged 3-6 mg once weekly; higher-dose studies evaluated 9 mg. NMPA-approved in China for chronic weight management.",[7107,7110,7113,7116],{"question":7108,"answer":7109},"Is mazdutide approved?","It was approved by China's NMPA in July 2025 for chronic weight management. It is not yet FDA approved in the US.",{"question":7111,"answer":7112},"How does mazdutide work?","It is a once-weekly dual agonist of the GLP-1 and glucagon receptors, combining appetite suppression with increased energy expenditure and hepatic fat oxidation.",{"question":7114,"answer":7115},"How much weight loss does mazdutide produce?","In phase 2, 24-week weight loss ranged from about 7% (3 mg) to 11% (6 mg) vs ~1% placebo; the phase 3 GLORY-2 trial reported ~20% weight loss with 9 mg at 48 weeks.",{"question":7117,"answer":7118},"Is mazdutide a peptide?","Yes — it is a long-acting acylated peptide agonist of GLP-1 and glucagon receptors, developed by Innovent Biologics and Eli Lilly (LY3305677).",{"id":5144,"name":7120,"slug":7121,"description":7122,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":15,"views":2222,"shortDescription":7123,"researchStatus":944,"peptideBenefits":7124,"benefits":7146,"peptideSideEffects":7155,"sideEffects":7160,"dosage":7165,"mechanism":7166,"safetyNote":148,"athleteWarning":149,"chemicalMakeup":7167,"citations":7168,"research":7377,"statsCache":7378,"imageUrl":7380,"molecularWeight":7381,"molecularFormula":7382,"pubchemId":7383,"sequence":7384,"halfLife":7385,"administrationRoute":540,"casNumber":7386,"smiles":7387,"totalMentions":153,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"protocols":7388,"aliases":7399,"researchAreas":7402,"evidence":7407,"keyStudies":7412,"limitations":7424,"pharmacology":7425,"faqs":7426,"lastReviewed":359},"MOTS-c","mots-c","MOTS-c (Mitochondrial Open Reading Frame of the 12S rRNA-c) is a mitochondrial-derived peptide (MDP) encoded within the mitochondrial genome, representing a novel class of signaling molecules that regulate metabolic homeostasis. Research demonstrates MOTS-c acts as an exercise mimetic, activating AMPK and other metabolic pathways typically stimulated by physical exercise. The peptide improves insulin sensitivity, enhances glucose uptake in skeletal muscle, and promotes fat oxidation. Studies indicate MOTS-c levels decline with age, potentially contributing to metabolic dysfunction and age-related diseases. Administration of MOTS-c has shown protective effects against diet-induced obesity, insulin resistance, and metabolic syndrome in animal models. The peptide may influence longevity through its effects on mitochondrial function and cellular stress responses. Research suggests potential applications for type 2 diabetes, obesity, and healthy aging. MOTS-c represents an emerging area of mitochondrial biology with implications for understanding the mitochondria's role as a signaling organelle beyond energy production.","Mitochondrial-derived peptide for metabolic health and exercise performance",[7125,7129,7133,7135,7137,7139,7141,7143],{"id":7126,"benefit":7127,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":7128,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},489,"Metabolic Homeostasis: Prevents insulin resistance, obesity","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25738459/",{"id":7130,"benefit":7131,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":7132,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},490,"Muscle Protection: Reduces myostatin signaling","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33554779/",{"id":7134,"benefit":960,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},330,{"id":7136,"benefit":63,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},331,{"id":7138,"benefit":1240,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},332,{"id":7140,"benefit":66,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},333,{"id":7142,"benefit":34,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},334,{"id":7144,"benefit":7145,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},335,"Exercise mimetic",[7147,7148,7149,7150,7151,7152,7153,7154],{"id":7126,"benefit":7127,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":7128,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":7130,"benefit":7131,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":7132,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":7134,"benefit":960,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":7136,"benefit":63,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":7138,"benefit":1240,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":7140,"benefit":66,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":7142,"benefit":34,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":7144,"benefit":7145,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},[7156,7157,7158,7159],{"id":3444,"sideEffect":112,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":3455,"sideEffect":1898,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":3439,"sideEffect":411,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":3449,"sideEffect":405,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},[7161,7162,7163,7164],{"id":3444,"sideEffect":112,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":3455,"sideEffect":1898,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":3439,"sideEffect":411,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":3449,"sideEffect":405,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"5-10mg 3x weekly","Mitochondrial-derived peptide that regulates metabolic homeostasis","16-amino-acid mitochondrial peptide, sequence Met-Arg-Trp-Gln-Glu-Met-Asp-Glu-Glu-Lys-Tyr-Leu-Lys-Arg-Gln-Lys",[7169,7174,7180,7186,7192,7197,7203,7209,7214,7220,7225,7230,7235,7240,7245,7250,7255,7260,7266,7271,7276,7282,7287,7293,7298,7304,7309,7314,7319,7324,7330,7335,7340,7346,7351,7357,7362,7367,7372],{"id":1839,"title":7170,"authors":155,"journal":7171,"year":157,"citationType":158,"doi":7172,"researchPaperId":7173},"MOTS-c: Mitochondrial-Derived Peptide in Metabolic Regulation","Cell Metabolism","10.1016/j.cmet.2024.11.006","pubmed_39893421",{"id":7175,"title":7176,"authors":7177,"journal":7178,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":7179},1286,"Mitochondrial-Encoded Peptide MOTS-c, Diabetes, and Aging-Related Diseases.","Kong BS, Lee C, Cho YM","Diabetes & metabolism journal","10.4093/dmj.2022.0333",{"id":7181,"title":7182,"authors":7183,"journal":7184,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":7185},1277,"MOTS-c Functionally Prevents Metabolic Disorders.","Gao Y, Wei X, Wei P, Lu H, Zhong L, Tan J, Liu H, Liu Z","Metabolites","10.3390/metabo13010125",{"id":7187,"title":7188,"authors":7189,"journal":7190,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":7191},1278,"MOTS-c reduces myostatin and muscle atrophy signaling.","Kumagai H, Coelho AR, Wan J, Mehta HH, Yen K, Huang A, Zempo H, Fuku N, Maeda S, Oliveira PJ, Cohen P, Kim SJ","American journal of physiology. Endocrinology and metabolism","10.1152/ajpendo.00275.2020",{"id":7193,"title":7194,"authors":7195,"journal":1151,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":7196},1279,"MOTS-c: A promising mitochondrial-derived peptide for therapeutic exploitation.","Zheng Y, Wei Z, Wang T","10.3389/fendo.2023.1120533",{"id":7198,"title":7199,"authors":7200,"journal":7201,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":7202},1280,"Role of MOTS-c in the regulation of bone metabolism.","Yi X, Hu G, Yang Y, Li J, Jin J, Chang B","Frontiers in physiology","10.3389/fphys.2023.1149120",{"id":7204,"title":7205,"authors":7206,"journal":7207,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":7208},1281,"MOTS-c: A Mitochondrial-Encoded Regulator of the Nucleus.","Benayoun BA, Lee C","BioEssays : news and reviews in molecular, cellular and developmental biology","10.1002/bies.201900046",{"id":7210,"title":7211,"authors":7212,"journal":2035,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":7213},1282,"MOTS-c: A potential anti-pulmonary fibrosis factor derived by mitochondria.","Zhang Z, Chen D, Du K, Huang Y, Li X, Li Q, Lv X","10.1016/j.mito.2023.06.002",{"id":7215,"title":7216,"authors":7217,"journal":7218,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":7219},1283,"The mitochondrial-derived peptide MOTS-c promotes metabolic homeostasis and reduces obesity and insulin resistance.","Lee C, Zeng J, Drew BG, Sallam T, Martin-Montalvo A, Wan J, Kim SJ, Mehta H, Hevener AL, de Cabo R, Cohen P","Cell metabolism","10.1016/j.cmet.2015.02.009",{"id":7221,"title":7222,"authors":7223,"journal":504,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":7224},1284,"The mitochondrial-derived peptide MOTS-c relieves hyperglycemia and insulin resistance in gestational diabetes mellitus.","Yin Y, Pan Y, He J, Zhong H, Wu Y, Ji C, Liu L, Cui X","10.1016/j.phrs.2021.105987",{"id":7226,"title":7227,"authors":7228,"journal":786,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":7229},1285,"Mitochondrial-Derived Peptide MOTS-c Suppresses Ovarian Cancer Progression by Attenuating USP7-Mediated LARS1 Deubiquitination.","Yin Y, Li Y, Ma B, Ren C, Zhao S, Li J, Gong Y, Yang H, Li J","10.1002/advs.202405620",{"id":7231,"title":7232,"authors":7233,"journal":516,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":7234},1287,"MOTS-c, the Most Recent Mitochondrial Derived Peptide in Human Aging and Age-Related Diseases.","Mohtashami Z, Singh MK, Salimiaghdam N, Ozgul M, Kenney MC","10.3390/ijms231911991",{"id":7236,"title":7237,"authors":7238,"journal":3505,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":7239},1288,"Mitochondria-derived peptide MOTS-c: effects and mechanisms related to stress, metabolism and aging.","Wan W, Zhang L, Lin Y, Rao X, Wang X, Hua F, Ying J","10.1186/s12967-023-03885-2",{"id":7241,"title":7242,"authors":7243,"journal":4389,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":7244},1289,"Novel function of MOTS-c in mitochondrial remodelling contributes to its antiviral role during HBV infection.","Lin C, Luo L, Xun Z, Zhu C, Huang Y, Ye Y, Zhang J, Chen T, Wu S, Zhan F, Yang B, Liu C, Ran N, Ou Q","10.1136/gutjnl-2023-330389",{"id":7246,"title":7247,"authors":7248,"journal":2827,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":7249},1290,"MOTS-c modulates skeletal muscle function by directly binding and activating CK2.","Kumagai H, Kim SJ, Miller B, Zempo H, Tanisawa K, Natsume T, Lee SH, Wan J, Leelaprachakul N, Kumagai ME, Ramirez R 2nd, Mehta HH, Cao K, Oh TJ, Wohlschlegel JA, Sha J, Nishida Y, Fuku N, Dobashi S, Miyamoto-Mikami E, Takaragawa M, Fuku M, Yoshihara T, Naito H, Kawakami R, Torii S, Midorikawa T, Oka K, Hara M, Iwasaka C, Yamada Y, Higaki Y, Tanaka K, Yen K, Cohen P","10.1016/j.isci.2024.111212",{"id":7251,"title":7252,"authors":7253,"journal":7218,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":7254},1291,"The Mitochondrial-Encoded Peptide MOTS-c Translocates to the Nucleus to Regulate Nuclear Gene Expression in Response to Metabolic Stress.","Kim KH, Son JM, Benayoun BA, Lee C","10.1016/j.cmet.2018.06.008",{"id":7256,"title":7257,"authors":7258,"journal":3059,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":7259},1292,"MOTS-c promotes muscle differentiation in vitro.","García-Benlloch S, Revert-Ros F, Blesa JR, Alis R","10.1016/j.peptides.2022.170840",{"id":7261,"title":7262,"authors":7263,"journal":7264,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":7265},1293,"MOTS-c: Magical Molecule for Diabetic Cardiomyopathy?","Yerra VG, Connelly KA","Cardiovascular drugs and therapy","10.1007/s10557-025-07689-y",{"id":7267,"title":7268,"authors":7269,"journal":7178,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":7270},1294,"Exercise, Mitohormesis, and Mitochondrial ORF of the 12S rRNA Type-C (MOTS-c).","Yoon TK, Lee CH, Kwon O, Kim MS","10.4093/dmj.2022.0092",{"id":7272,"title":7273,"authors":7274,"journal":773,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":7275},1295,"MOTS-c regulates the ROS/TXNIP/NLRP3 pathway to alleviate diabetic cardiomyopathy.","Fu Y, Tang M, Duan Y, Pan Y, Liang M, Yuan J, Wang M, Laher I, Li S","10.1016/j.bbrc.2024.151072",{"id":7277,"title":7278,"authors":7279,"journal":7280,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":7281},1296,"MOTS-c regulates pancreatic alpha and beta cell functions in vitro.","Bień J, Pruszyńska-Oszmałek E, Kołodziejski P, Leciejewska N, Szczepankiewicz D, Sassek M","Histochemistry and cell biology","10.1007/s00418-024-02274-0",{"id":7283,"title":7284,"authors":7285,"journal":735,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":7286},1297,"MOTS-c: A novel mitochondrial-derived peptide regulating muscle and fat metabolism.","Lee C, Kim KH, Cohen P","10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2016.05.015",{"id":7288,"title":7289,"authors":7290,"journal":7291,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":7292},1298,"MOTS-c repairs myocardial damage by inhibiting the CCN1/ERK1/2/EGR1 pathway in diabetic rats.","Wang M, Wang G, Pang X, Ma J, Yuan J, Pan Y, Fu Y, Laher I, Li S","Frontiers in nutrition","10.3389/fnut.2022.1060684",{"id":7294,"title":7295,"authors":7296,"journal":1533,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":7297},1299,"The Mitochondrial-Derived Peptide MOTS-c Alleviates Radiation Pneumonitis via an Nrf2-Dependent Mechanism.","Zhang Y, Huang J, Zhang Y, Jiang F, Li S, He S, Sun J, Chen D, Tong Y, Pang Q, Wu Y","10.3390/antiox13050613",{"id":7299,"title":7300,"authors":7301,"journal":7302,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":7303},1300,"Mitochondria-encoded peptide MOTS-c participates in plasma membrane repair by facilitating the translocation of TRIM72 to membrane.","Jia H, Zhou LC, Chen YF, Zhang W, Qi W, Wang P, Huang X, Guo JW, Hou WF, Zhang RR, Zhou JJ, Zhang DW","Theranostics","10.7150/thno.100321",{"id":7305,"title":7306,"authors":7307,"journal":1071,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":7308},1301,"MOTS-c in type 2 diabetes mellitus: From risk factors to cardiac complications and potential treatment.","Fang T, Han JC, Taberner A, Pham T","10.1016/j.lfs.2025.124009",{"id":7310,"title":7311,"authors":7312,"journal":3472,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":7313},1302,"Evolution of Mitochondrially Derived Peptides Humanin and MOTSc, and Changes in Insulin Sensitivity during Early Gestation in Women with and without Gestational Diabetes.","Ruiz D, Santibañez M, Lavín BA, Berja A, Montalban C, Vazquez LA","10.3390/jcm11113003",{"id":7315,"title":7316,"authors":7317,"journal":3183,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":7318},1303,"Mitochondria-derived peptides in aging and healthspan.","Miller B, Kim SJ, Kumagai H, Yen K, Cohen P","10.1172/JCI158449",{"id":7320,"title":7321,"authors":7322,"journal":7190,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":7323},1304,"Mitochondrial-derived peptides in energy metabolism.","Merry TL, Chan A, Woodhead JST, Reynolds JC, Kumagai H, Kim SJ, Lee C","10.1152/ajpendo.00249.2020",{"id":7325,"title":7326,"authors":7327,"journal":7328,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":7329},1305,"The protective effect of the mitochondrial-derived peptide MOTS-c on LPS-induced septic cardiomyopathy.","Wu J, Xiao D, Yu K, Shalamu K, He B, Zhang M","Acta biochimica et biophysica Sinica","10.3724/abbs.2023006",{"id":7331,"title":7332,"authors":7333,"journal":1031,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":7334},1306,"Mitochondrial-derived peptides and exercise.","Woodhead JST, Merry TL","10.1016/j.bbagen.2021.130011",{"id":7336,"title":7337,"authors":7338,"journal":1151,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":7339},1307,"Editorial: Role of mitochondrial stress response in metabolic health.","Pereira RO, Keipert S","10.3389/fendo.2024.1504718",{"id":7341,"title":7342,"authors":7343,"journal":7344,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":7345},1308,"Abnormal levels of mitochondrial proteins in plasma neuronal extracellular vesicles in major depressive disorder.","Goetzl EJ, Wolkowitz OM, Srihari VH, Reus VI, Goetzl L, Kapogiannis D, Heninger GR, Mellon SH","Molecular psychiatry","10.1038/s41380-021-01268-x",{"id":7347,"title":7348,"authors":7349,"journal":1702,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":7350},1309,"Mitochondrial-Derived Peptides Exacerbate Senescence.","Mendelsohn AR, Larrick JW","10.1089/rej.2018.2114",{"id":7352,"title":7353,"authors":7354,"journal":7355,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":7356},1310,"Mitochondrial peptides-appropriate options for therapeutic exploitation.","Popov LD","Cell and tissue research","10.1007/s00441-019-03049-z",{"id":7358,"title":7359,"authors":7360,"journal":522,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":7361},1311,"MOTS-c Promotes Glycolysis via AMPK-HIF-1α-PFKFB3 Pathway to Ameliorate Cardiopulmonary Bypass-induced Lung Injury.","Shen Z, Lu P, Jin W, Wen Z, Qi Y, Li X, Chu M, Yao X, Wu M, Wang A, Zhang X, Wang W, Song M, Wang X","10.1165/rcmb.2024-0533OC",{"id":7363,"title":7364,"authors":7365,"journal":1151,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":7366},1312,"Mitochondrial-Derived Peptides in Diabetes and Its Complications.","Wu Y, Sun L, Zhuang Z, Hu X, Dong D","10.3389/fendo.2021.808120",{"id":7368,"title":7369,"authors":7370,"journal":3853,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":7371},1313,"MOTS-c attenuates lung ischemia-reperfusion injury via MYH9-Dependent nuclear translocation and transcriptional activation of antioxidant genes.","Li X, Zhan F, Qiu G, Lu P, Shen Z, Qi Y, Wu M, Chu M, Feng J, Wen Z, Yao X, Wang A, Jin W, Zhang X, Liao J, Zhang J, Song M, Wang W, Wang X","10.1016/j.redox.2025.103681",{"id":7373,"title":7374,"authors":7375,"journal":7302,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":7376},1314,"The DNA-dependent protein kinase catalytic subunit exacerbates endotoxemia-induced myocardial microvascular injury by disrupting the MOTS-c/JNK pathway and inducing profilin-mediated lamellipodia degradation.","Zou R, Shi W, Chang X, Zhang M, Tan S, Li R, Zhou H, Li Y, Wang G, Lv W, Fan X","10.7150/thno.92650",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":153,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":7379},"2026-01-05T22:12:12.455927","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/mots-c.webp","2174.61","C101H152N28O22S2","146675088","MRWQEMGYIFYPRKLR","4 hours","1627580-64-6","CC[C@H](C)[C@@H](C(=O)N[C@@H](CC1=CC=CC=C1)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC2=CC=C(C=C2)O)C(=O)N3CCC[C@H]3C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCNC(=N)N)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCCN)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(C)C)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCNC(=N)N)C(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@H](CC4=CC=C(C=C4)O)NC(=O)CNC(=O)[C@H](CCSC)NC(=O)[C@H](CCC(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@H](CCC(=O)N)NC(=O)[C@H](CC5=CNC6=CC=CC=C65)NC(=O)[C@H](CCCNC(=N)N)NC(=O)[C@H](CCSC)N",[7389,7390,7393,7397],{"name":960,"dose":320,"frequency":1801,"route":311},{"name":7391,"dose":7392,"frequency":889,"route":311},"Anti-aging protocol","15mg",{"name":7394,"dose":7395,"frequency":7396,"route":311},"Exercise performance","10-15mg","Pre-workout",{"name":6459,"dose":7398,"frequency":1801,"route":311},"5mg",[7120,7400,7401],"mitochondrial open reading frame of the 12S rRNA-c","mitochondrial-derived peptide",[7403,7404,7405,7406],"Metabolic regulation and insulin sensitivity","Mitochondrial biology","Exercise physiology","Age-related metabolic disease",{"human":7408,"animal":7409,"inVitro":7410,"uncertain":7411},"Human data are observational: acute endurance exercise increases circulating MOTS-c levels, and exercise interventions modulate MOTS-c in various populations. An interventional trial (MOTS-MET) testing MOTS-c for insulin sensitivity in adults with prediabetes and overweight/obesity is registered at ClinicalTrials.gov (phase 2).","In mice, MOTS-c administration improves insulin sensitivity, protects against high-fat diet-induced obesity and metabolic dysfunction, and promotes metabolic homeostasis, per the discovery study in Cell Metabolism.","Cell studies show MOTS-c translocates to the nucleus under metabolic stress to regulate gene expression, including AMPK pathway activation, supporting a role in metabolic adaptation.","Claims that MOTS-c is an 'exercise mimetic' or anti-aging peptide for humans are not established; effects of exogenous MOTS-c in people await results of the ongoing clinical trial.",[7413,7416,7420],{"finding":7414,"source":7415,"year":1516,"link":7128,"evidenceLevel":50},"Discovery study: the mitochondrial-derived peptide MOTS-c promoted metabolic homeostasis, improved insulin sensitivity, and reduced obesity in mice on a high-fat diet.","Preclinical study (Cell Metabolism)",{"finding":7417,"source":7418,"year":465,"link":7419,"evidenceLevel":46},"Acute endurance exercise significantly increased circulating levels of mitochondrial-derived peptides, including MOTS-c, in humans.","Human exercise physiology study","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34351816/",{"finding":7421,"source":7422,"year":1624,"link":7423,"evidenceLevel":46},"A phase 2 trial (MOTS-MET) is registered to test whether MOTS-c improves insulin sensitivity in adults with prediabetes and overweight/obesity.","Registered interventional trial (ClinicalTrials.gov)","https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT07505745","Most functional evidence comes from mice; human data are observational (circulating levels) with an interventional trial still underway. Dose, pharmacokinetics, and safety of exogenous MOTS-c in humans are not yet established.","MOTS-c is a 16-amino-acid peptide encoded in mitochondrial DNA (within the 12S rRNA region) believed to act partly through AMPK-related signaling. Published human pharmacokinetics (half-life, optimized route/dosing) are not available; the registered trial is expected to provide initial human data.",[7427,7430,7433],{"question":7428,"answer":7429},"Is MOTS-c proven to improve metabolism in humans?","Not yet - human evidence is observational, and the first interventional trial (MOTS-MET) is ongoing.",{"question":7431,"answer":7432},"Is MOTS-c an exercise mimetic?","Exercise increases circulating MOTS-c, but whether giving the peptide reproduces exercise benefits in people is unproven.",{"question":7434,"answer":7435},"Is MOTS-c FDA approved?","No; it is an investigational peptide with a registered phase 2 trial at ClinicalTrials.gov.",{"id":2541,"name":7437,"slug":7438,"description":7439,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":28,"views":7440,"peptideBenefits":7441,"benefits":7449,"peptideSideEffects":7452,"sideEffects":7477,"dosage":5043,"mechanism":7485,"safetyNote":7486,"athleteWarning":7487,"citations":7488,"research":7696,"statsCache":7697,"imageUrl":7699,"molecularWeight":7700,"molecularFormula":7701,"pubchemId":7702,"sequence":7703,"halfLife":7704,"administrationRoute":4541,"casNumber":7705,"smiles":7706,"totalMentions":6267,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"aliases":7707,"researchAreas":7712,"evidence":7717,"keyStudies":7722,"limitations":7730,"pharmacology":7731,"faqs":7732,"lastReviewed":359},"RAD-140","rad-140","RAD-140 (Testolone) is a selective androgen receptor modulator (SARM), not a peptide, being investigated for potential therapeutic applications in muscle wasting and breast cancer. SARMs are designed to selectively activate androgen receptors in muscle and bone while minimizing effects on reproductive organs, potentially offering anabolic benefits with fewer side effects than traditional androgens. Preclinical research demonstrates RAD-140 increases lean muscle mass, enhances strength, and may have neuroprotective properties. The compound has shown anti-tumor activity in androgen receptor-positive breast cancer models. Phase 1 clinical trials have evaluated safety in postmenopausal women with breast cancer. Despite being investigational and not approved for any medical use, RAD-140 is widely available in the supplement market and used for physique enhancement. The compound suppresses natural testosterone production, requires post-cycle therapy, and carries unknown long-term risks. RAD-140 is banned by WADA and most sports organizations. Liver toxicity has been reported in some users, highlighting the risks of unregulated use.",15,[7442,7446],{"id":7443,"benefit":7444,"benefitCategory":7445,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},448,"Anabolic effects (claimed)","Muscle",{"id":7447,"benefit":7448,"benefitCategory":7445,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},449,"Tissue-selective (theoretical)",[7450,7451],{"id":7443,"benefit":7444,"benefitCategory":7445,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":7447,"benefit":7448,"benefitCategory":7445,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},[7453,7455,7457,7459,7462,7465,7471],{"id":1652,"sideEffect":7454,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":15,"onset":682,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"HEPATOTOXICITY (DILI case reports)",{"id":1655,"sideEffect":7456,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":15,"onset":682,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Myocarditis",{"id":1657,"sideEffect":7458,"description":23,"severity":1669,"frequency":5476,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":682,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Liver enzyme elevation",{"id":7460,"sideEffect":7461,"description":23,"severity":1669,"frequency":5476,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":682,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},288,"Testosterone suppression",{"id":7463,"sideEffect":7464,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":6526,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":15,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},289,"Increased mortality (mice)",{"id":58,"sideEffect":7466,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":7467,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":7468,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":7437,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":7469,"management":7470,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},"Severe side effect","15+ case reports","pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9753945/","3-8 weeks","DISCONTINUE; supportive care; corticosteroids",{"id":3681,"sideEffect":7472,"description":23,"severity":1669,"frequency":7473,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":7474,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":7437,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":7475,"management":7476,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},"Moderate side effect","Expected","pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10204391/","During use","Post-cycle therapy; monitoring",[7478,7479,7480,7481,7482,7483,7484],{"id":1652,"sideEffect":7454,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":15,"onset":682,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":1655,"sideEffect":7456,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":15,"onset":682,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":1657,"sideEffect":7458,"description":23,"severity":1669,"frequency":5476,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":682,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":7460,"sideEffect":7461,"description":23,"severity":1669,"frequency":5476,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":682,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":7463,"sideEffect":7464,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":6526,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":15,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":58,"sideEffect":7466,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":7467,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":7468,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":7437,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":7469,"management":7470,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},{"id":3681,"sideEffect":7472,"description":23,"severity":1669,"frequency":7473,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":7474,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":7437,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":7475,"management":7476,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},"Selective Androgen Receptor Modulator (SARM) - NOT A PEPTIDE","SERIOUS SAFETY CONCERNS - NOT APPROVED. Multiple case reports of HEPATOTOXICITY (drug-induced liver injury). WADA BANNED. NO SAFE PROTOCOL. Sold illegally but carries significant health risks.","WADA PROHIBITED - Not permitted in competitive sports",[7489,7494,7500,7506,7512,7518,7524,7530,7536,7542,7547,7551,7556,7562,7568,7573,7578,7583,7588,7593,7598,7603,7609,7614,7620,7626,7631,7636,7642,7648,7653,7659,7664,7670,7675,7681,7686,7691],{"id":7490,"title":7491,"authors":155,"journal":6786,"year":478,"citationType":158,"doi":7492,"researchPaperId":7493},83,"RAD-140: Selective Androgen Receptor Modulator in Breast Cancer","10.1007/s40265-023-01972-y","pubmed_37986708",{"id":7495,"title":7496,"authors":7497,"journal":7498,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":7499},1545,"RAD-140 Drug-Induced Liver Injury.","Leung K, Yaramada P, Goyal P, Cai CX, Thung I, Hammami MB","Ochsner journal","10.31486/toj.22.0005",{"id":7501,"title":7502,"authors":7503,"journal":7504,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":7505},1546,"Myopericarditis Following Use of Selective Androgen Receptor Modifier \"RAD-140\".","Schwartzman KH, Kohli U, Chaudhuri NR, Hoda M","JACC. Case reports","10.1016/j.jaccas.2024.102423",{"id":7507,"title":7508,"authors":7509,"journal":7510,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":7511},1547,"Drug-Induced Liver Injury Associated With Alpha Bolic (RAD-140) and Alpha Elite (RAD-140 and LGD-4033).","Barbara M, Dhingra S, Mindikoglu AL","ACG case reports journal","10.14309/crj.0000000000000409",{"id":7513,"title":7514,"authors":7515,"journal":7516,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":7517},1548,"Comparison of the three SARMs RAD-140, GLPG0492 and GSK-2881078 in two different in vitro bioassays, and in an in silico androgen receptor binding assay.","Zierau O, Kolodziejczyk A, Vollmer G, Machalz D, Wolber G, Thieme D, Keiler AM","The Journal of steroid biochemistry and molecular biology","10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.02.014",{"id":7519,"title":7520,"authors":7521,"journal":7522,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":7523},1549,"Acute Myocarditis From the Use of Selective Androgen Receptor Modulator (SARM) RAD-140 (Testolone).","Padappayil RP, Chandini Arjun A, Vivar Acosta J, Ghali W, Mughal MS","Cureus","10.7759/cureus.21663",{"id":7525,"title":7526,"authors":7527,"journal":7528,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":7529},1550,"Selective androgen receptor modulator abuse-induced heart failure: catastrophic effects of RAD-140 (Testolone).","Skorupski WJ, Marko A, Janus M, Skorupska K, Lesiak M, Klotzka A","Polish archives of internal medicine","10.20452/pamw.16770",{"id":7531,"title":7532,"authors":7533,"journal":7534,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":7535},1551,"Reversible Gynecomastia and Hypogonadism Due to Usage of Commercial Performance-Enhancing Supplement Use.","Chong S, Woolnough CA, Koyyalamudi SR, Perera NJ","JCEM case reports","10.1210/jcemcr/luae148",{"id":7537,"title":7538,"authors":7539,"journal":7540,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":7541},1552,"Severe liver injury following use of RAD-140, a selective androgen receptor modulator, for body building.","Perananthan V, George J","Australian prescriber","10.18773/austprescr.2024.004",{"id":7543,"title":7544,"authors":7545,"journal":7510,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":7546},1553,"Cholestatic Drug-Induced Liver Injury From Rad-140 Successfully Treated With Corticosteroids.","Niazi B, Quach B, Fisher K, Peeraphatdit T","10.14309/crj.0000000000001803",{"id":7548,"title":7549,"authors":6418,"journal":5625,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":7550},1554,"Detection of SARMs in doping control analysis.","10.1016/j.mce.2017.01.040",{"id":7552,"title":7553,"authors":7554,"journal":7522,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":7555},1555,"Selective Androgen Receptor Modulators Leading to Liver Injury: A Case Report.","Demangone MR, Abi Karam KR, Li J","10.7759/cureus.67958",{"id":7557,"title":7558,"authors":7559,"journal":7560,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":7561},1556,"Detection of selective androgen receptor modulators (SARMs) in serum using a molecularly imprinted nanoparticle surface plasmon resonance sensor.","Henderson A, Sullivan MV, Hand RA, Turner NW","Journal of materials chemistry. B","10.1039/d2tb00270a",{"id":7563,"title":7564,"authors":7565,"journal":7566,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":7567},1557,"A rapid synthesis of molecularly imprinted polymer nanoparticles for the extraction of performance enhancing drugs (PIEDs).","Sullivan MV, Fletcher C, Armitage R, Blackburn C, Turner NW","Nanoscale advances","10.1039/d3na00422h",{"id":7569,"title":7570,"authors":7571,"journal":3452,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":7572},1558,"Identification of equine in vitro metabolites of seven non-steroidal selective androgen receptor modulators for doping control purposes.","Cutler C, Viljanto M, Taylor P, Hincks P, Biddle S, Van Eenoo P","10.1002/dta.3189",{"id":7574,"title":7575,"authors":7576,"journal":2656,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":7577},1559,"Pharmacological Targeting of Androgen Receptor Elicits Context-Specific Effects in Estrogen Receptor-Positive Breast Cancer.","Wei L, Gao H, Yu J, Zhang H, Nguyen TTL, Gu Y, Passow MR, Carter JM, Qin B, Boughey JC, Goetz MP, Weinshilboum RM, Ingle JN, Wang L","10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-22-1016",{"id":7579,"title":7580,"authors":7581,"journal":3115,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":7582},1560,"The impact of a selective androgen receptor modulator (RAD140) on frailty and underlying mechanisms in older male and female C57Bl/6 mice.","Heinze SS, Hodgins ML, Howlett SE","10.1016/j.mad.2025.112054",{"id":7584,"title":7585,"authors":7586,"journal":2064,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":7587},1561,"RAD140 (Testolone) negatively impacts skeletal muscle adaptation, frailty status and mortality risk in female mice.","Brown AM, Ganjayi MS, Baumann CW","10.1111/1440-1681.13824",{"id":7589,"title":7590,"authors":7591,"journal":7522,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":7592},1562,"Selective Androgen Receptor Modulators (SARMs)-Induced Liver Injury: A Case Report and Review of Literature.","Mohamed WT, Jahagirdar V, Fatima I, Ahmed MK, Jaber F, Wang K, Hassan A, Ewing E, Clarkston W, Likhitsup A","10.7759/cureus.35094",{"id":7594,"title":7595,"authors":7596,"journal":6419,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":7597},1563,"The forensic response after an adverse analytical finding (doping) involving a selective androgen receptor modulator (SARM) in human athlete.","Kintz P","10.1016/j.jpba.2021.114433",{"id":7599,"title":7600,"authors":7601,"journal":7522,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":7602},1564,"Social Interest Data as a Proxy for Off-Label Performance-Enhancing Drug Use: Implications and Clinical Considerations.","Holubeck PA, Eksi AC, Gillett K, O'Hara J, McGoldrick DJ, Brown DR, McCarthy AD","10.7759/cureus.52011",{"id":7604,"title":7605,"authors":7606,"journal":7607,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":7608},1565,"Comparison of in vitro approaches for predicting the metabolism of the selective androgen receptor modulator RAD140.","Wagener F, Naumann N, Göldner V, Görgens C, Guddat S, Karst U, Thevis M","Analytical and bioanalytical chemistry","10.1007/s00216-023-04835-z",{"id":7610,"title":7611,"authors":7612,"journal":3452,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":7613},1566,"Metabolic studies of selective androgen receptor modulators RAD140 and S-23 in horses.","So YM, Wong JKY, Choi TLS, Prabhu A, Stewart B, Farrington AF, Robinson P, Wan TSM, Ho ENM","10.1002/dta.2920",{"id":7615,"title":7616,"authors":7617,"journal":7618,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":7619},1567,"A First-in-Human Phase 1 Study of a Novel Selective Androgen Receptor Modulator (SARM), RAD140, in ER+/HER2- Metastatic Breast Cancer.","LoRusso P, Hamilton E, Ma C, Vidula N, Bagley RG, Troy S, Annett M, Yu Z, Conlan MG, Weise A","Clinical breast cancer","10.1016/j.clbc.2021.08.003",{"id":7621,"title":7622,"authors":7623,"journal":7624,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":7625},1568,"Systematic identification of ACE2 expression modulators reveals cardiomyopathy as a risk factor for mortality in COVID-19 patients.","Kaur N, Oskotsky B, Butte AJ, Hu Z","Genome biology","10.1186/s13059-021-02589-4",{"id":7627,"title":7628,"authors":7629,"journal":3452,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":7630},1569,"Label-free proteomics for discovering biomarker candidates of RAD140 administration to castrated horses.","Cheung HW, Wong KS, To NS, Bond AJ, Farrington AF, Prabhu A, Curl P, Wan TSM, Ho ENM","10.1002/dta.2988",{"id":7632,"title":7633,"authors":7634,"journal":7184,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":7635},1570,"Human In Vivo Metabolism and Elimination Behavior of Micro-Dosed Selective Androgen Receptor Modulator RAD140 for Doping Control Purposes.","Wagener F, Euler L, Görgens C, Guddat S, Thevis M","10.3390/metabo12070666",{"id":7637,"title":7638,"authors":7639,"journal":7640,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":7641},1571,"Idiosyncratic drug-induced liver injury related to use of novel selective androgen receptor modulator RAD140 (Testalone): a case report.","Ladna M, Taylor K, Bhat A, Dideban B","Journal of medical case reports","10.1186/s13256-023-03847-8",{"id":7643,"title":7644,"authors":7645,"journal":7646,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":7647},1572,"Selective Androgen Receptor Modulator RAD140 Inhibits the Growth of Androgen/Estrogen Receptor-Positive Breast Cancer Models with a Distinct Mechanism of Action.","Yu Z, He S, Wang D, Patel HK, Miller CP, Brown JL, Hattersley G, Saeh JC","Clinical cancer research : an official journal of the American Association for Cancer Research","10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-17-0670",{"id":7649,"title":7650,"authors":7651,"journal":3189,"year":1152,"citationType":167,"doi":7652},1573,"Selective androgen receptor modulator RAD140 is neuroprotective in cultured neurons and kainate-lesioned male rats.","Jayaraman A, Christensen A, Moser VA, Vest RS, Miller CP, Hattersley G, Pike CJ","10.1210/en.2013-1725",{"id":7654,"title":7655,"authors":7656,"journal":7657,"year":1122,"citationType":167,"doi":7658},1574,"Design, Synthesis, and Preclinical Characterization of the Selective Androgen Receptor Modulator (SARM) RAD140.","Miller CP, Shomali M, Lyttle CR, O'Dea LS, Herendeen H, Gallacher K, Paquin D, Compton DR, Sahoo B, Kerrigan SA, Burge MS, Nickels M, Green JL, Katzenellenbogen JA, Tchesnokov A, Hattersley G","ACS medicinal chemistry letters","10.1021/ml1002508",{"id":7660,"title":7661,"authors":7662,"journal":2058,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":7663},1575,"Preclinical assessment of the selective androgen receptor modulator RAD140 to increase muscle mass and bone mineral density.","Puskas J, Guda T, Niccoli S, Rathbone CR, Tan-Johnson B, Puskas D, Middleton R, Otis JS, Lees SJ","10.14814/phy2.70463",{"id":7665,"title":7666,"authors":7667,"journal":7668,"year":260,"citationType":167,"doi":7669},1576,"Expanding sports drug testing assays: mass spectrometric characterization of the selective androgen receptor modulator drug candidates RAD140 and ACP-105.","Thevis M, Piper T, Beuck S, Geyer H, Schänzer W","Rapid communications in mass spectrometry : RCM","10.1002/rcm.6558",{"id":7671,"title":7672,"authors":7673,"journal":3452,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":7674},1577,"Detection of nonsteroidal and steroidal selective androgen receptor modulators in equine hair after oral administrations.","So YM, Kong FK, Kwok WH, Kwok KY, Wan TSM, Ho EN","10.1002/dta.3772",{"id":7676,"title":7677,"authors":7678,"journal":7679,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":7680},1578,"Exploring transdermal SARMs exposure: Analysis of the elimination profiles and metabolism for doping control purposes.","Korsmeier L, Krombholz S, Alhalabi H, Thomas A, Thevis M","Journal of analytical toxicology","10.1093/jat/bkaf066",{"id":7682,"title":7683,"authors":7684,"journal":6419,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":7685},1579,"Simultaneous detection of different chemical classes of selective androgen receptor modulators in urine by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry-based techniques.","Stacchini C, Botrè F, Comunità F, de la Torre X, Dima AP, Ricci M, Mazzarino M","10.1016/j.jpba.2020.113849",{"id":7687,"title":7688,"authors":7689,"journal":3452,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":7690},1580,"Detection of anabolic agents including selective androgen receptor modulators in samples outside of sport.","Bohlin KP, Pohanka A, Andersson A, Villén T, Ekström L","10.1002/dta.3600",{"id":7692,"title":7693,"authors":7694,"journal":3452,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":7695},1581,"Development of a multi-residue high-throughput UHPLC-MS/MS method for routine monitoring of SARM compounds in equine and bovine blood.","Ventura E, Gadaj A, Buckley T, Mooney MH","10.1002/dta.2875",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":6267,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":7698},"2026-01-05T22:12:15.037323","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/rad-140.webp","393.8","C20H16ClN5O2","44200882","MLSRLMSGSSRSLEREYSCTVRLLDDSEYTCTIQRDAKGQYLFDLLCHHLNLLEKDYFGIRFVDPDKQRHWLEFTKSVVKQLRSQPPFTMCFRVKFYPADPAALKEEITRYLVFLQIKRDLYHGRLLCKTSDAALLAAYILQAEIGDYDSGKHPEGYSSKFQFFPKHSEKLERKIAEIHKTELSGQTPATSELNFLRKAQTLETYGVDPHPCKDVSGNAAFLAFTPFGFVVLQGNKRVHFIKWNEVTKLKFEGKTFYLYVSQKEEKKIILTYFAPTPEACKHLWKCGIENQAFYKLEKSSQVRTVSSSNLFFKGSRFRYSGRVAKEVMESSAKIKREPPEIHRAGMVPSRSCPSITHGPRLSSVPRTRRRAVHISIMEGLESLRDSAHSTPVRSTSHGDTFLPHVRSSRTDSNERVAVIADEAYSPADSVLPTPVAEHSLELMLLSRQINGATCSIEEEKESEASTPTATEVEALGGELRALCQGHSGPEEEQVNKFVLSVLRLLLVTMGLLFVLLLLLIILTESDLDIAFFRDIRQTPEFEQFHYQYFCPLRRWFACKIRSVVSLLIDT","~60 hours","1182367-47-0","CC1=C(C=CC(=C1Cl)C#N)N[C@@H](C2=NN=C(O2)C3=CC=C(C=C3)C#N)[C@H](C)O",[7708,7709,7710,7711],"Testolone","RAD140","SARM","Selective androgen receptor modulator",[7713,7714,7715,7716],"Breast cancer (ER+/HER2-)","Muscle wasting","Androgen receptor signaling","Sarcopenia",{"human":7718,"animal":7719,"inVitro":7720,"uncertain":7721},"A first-in-human phase 1 dose-escalation study (3+3 design) enrolled 22 postmenopausal women with heavily pretreated ER+/HER2- metastatic breast cancer. RAD140 (50-150 mg/day oral) showed AR engagement (decreased SHBG, increased PSA); at the 100 mg/day MTD, one patient with an ESR1 mutation had a partial response; clinical benefit rate at 24 weeks was 18.2% and median PFS was 2.3 months. Frequent adverse events were elevated AST (59.1%) and ALT (45.5%).","Preclinical studies show RAD140 increases lean mass and muscle strength in animal models and has antitumor activity in AR-positive breast cancer models.","RAD140 is a nonsteroidal SARM with tissue-selective AR agonism designed to spare reproductive tissues; AR binding/activity was characterized in cell assays.","Claims of anabolic effects in healthy users, post-cycle therapy needs, and long-term safety are not clinically validated; the compound is not approved and is banned by WADA. Liver enzyme elevations were common in the phase 1 trial.",[7723,7727],{"finding":7724,"source":7725,"year":437,"link":7726,"evidenceLevel":46},"Phase 1 study in 22 women with ER+/HER2- metastatic breast cancer: RAD140 (50-150 mg/day) demonstrated AR engagement; at the 100 mg/day MTD one patient with an ESR1 mutation had a partial response, with clinical benefit rate 18.2% at 24 weeks and median PFS 2.3 months. AST/ALT elevations occurred in 59%/45%.","First-in-human phase 1 dose-escalation trial (Clinical Breast Cancer)","https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clbc.2021.08.003",{"finding":7728,"source":7729,"year":437,"link":7726,"evidenceLevel":50},"Preclinical studies demonstrated RAD140 increases lean muscle mass and strength in animals and shows antitumor activity in androgen-receptor-positive breast cancer models.","Preclinical studies (referenced in the phase 1 publication)","The only human trial is a small phase 1 oncology study in a specific patient population; there is no evidence of safety or efficacy for muscle-building use in healthy people, and liver enzyme elevations were frequent. It is not FDA approved and is prohibited in sport.","RAD-140 (testolone) is an oral, nonsteroidal selective androgen receptor modulator (SARM), not a peptide. In the phase 1 trial, doses of 50-150 mg once daily were evaluated; the half-life was ~44.7 hours, supporting once-daily dosing, and the MTD was 100 mg/day. AR engagement was confirmed via decreased SHBG and increased PSA. WADA banned.",[7733,7736,7739],{"question":7734,"answer":7735},"Is RAD-140 a peptide?","No. RAD-140 (testolone) is a nonsteroidal selective androgen receptor modulator (SARM) — a small-molecule drug class, not a peptide.",{"question":7737,"answer":7738},"Has RAD-140 been tested in humans?","Yes — in a small first-in-human phase 1 oncology trial in postmenopausal women with ER+/HER2- metastatic breast cancer; no trials support its use for muscle building.",{"question":7740,"answer":7741},"What are the safety concerns with RAD-140?","The phase 1 trial reported frequent elevated liver enzymes (AST/ALT) and other toxicities; unregulated use also suppresses natural testosterone, and WADA bans it.",{"id":2640,"name":7743,"slug":7744,"description":7745,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":15,"views":3766,"shortDescription":7746,"researchStatus":7747,"peptideBenefits":7748,"benefits":7788,"peptideSideEffects":7804,"sideEffects":7824,"dosage":7834,"mechanism":7835,"safetyNote":7836,"athleteWarning":7837,"chemicalMakeup":7838,"citations":7839,"research":7979,"statsCache":7980,"imageUrl":7982,"molecularWeight":7983,"molecularFormula":7984,"pubchemId":7985,"sequence":6813,"halfLife":7986,"administrationRoute":540,"casNumber":7987,"smiles":7988,"totalMentions":6362,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"protocols":7989,"aliases":8017,"researchAreas":8021,"evidence":8023,"keyStudies":8026,"limitations":8039,"pharmacology":8040,"faqs":8041,"lastReviewed":359},"Retatrutide","retatrutide","Retatrutide is an experimental \"triple agonist\" peptide that activates three hormone receptors at once: GLP-1, GIP, and glucagon. Early clinical trials show it may be the most powerful weight loss medication ever developed. **Why three receptors?** Each receptor contributes something different: • **GLP-1:** Reduces appetite and improves blood sugar control • **GIP:** Enhances insulin response and may boost the effects of GLP-1 • **Glucagon:** Increases energy expenditure and burns liver fat Together, this mimics what happens after weight loss surgery — but without surgery. **What the research shows:** • Phase 2 trials showed up to 24% body weight loss — unprecedented for any medication • Significant improvements in blood sugar and metabolic health • Particularly effective at reducing liver fat (important for fatty liver disease) • Currently in Phase 3 trials for obesity and type 2 diabetes **How it compares:** • Semaglutide (Wegovy): ~15-17% weight loss • Tirzepatide (Zepbound): ~20-22% weight loss • Retatrutide: ~24% weight loss in trials **Important to know:** Retatrutide is not yet FDA-approved and is still in clinical development. Results from larger Phase 3 trials are pending. --- **Sources:** Jastreboff AM, et al. (2023) New England Journal of Medicine | Targher G, et al. (2025) Clinical and Molecular Hepatology. DOI:10.3350/cmh.2025.0744","Triple GLP-1/GIP/glucagon agonist showing exceptional weight loss potential","Phase 3 Clinical Trials - Triple agonist",[7749,7754,7756,7758,7760,7763,7766,7769,7772,7775,7778,7780,7782,7784,7786],{"id":7750,"benefit":7751,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":7752,"sourceUrl":7753,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},31,"Triple hormone pathway activation","1p6x3lk","https://reddit.com/r/Peptides/comments/1p6x3lk/to_those_who_use_retatrutide_what_other_positives/",{"id":7755,"benefit":1235,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":7752,"sourceUrl":7753,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},32,{"id":5088,"benefit":7757,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":7752,"sourceUrl":7753,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Enhanced fat burning",{"id":6334,"benefit":7759,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":7752,"sourceUrl":7753,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Improved insulin 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weekly","Triple agonist (GLP-1/GIP/Glucagon) for superior metabolic health and weight loss","Investigational compound in Phase 3 trials. Not yet approved for clinical use.","Not WADA banned - investigational metabolic compound safe for competitive athletes under medical supervision","Triple agonist peptide targeting GLP-1, GIP, and glucagon receptors",[7840,7845,7850,7855,7860,7866,7871,7876,7882,7888,7893,7898,7904,7910,7916,7921,7927,7933,7939,7944,7949,7954,7960,7966,7971,7973],{"id":7841,"title":7842,"authors":7843,"journal":3472,"year":157,"citationType":44,"doi":7844},86,"Diabetes Mellitus and Chronic Kidney Disease: The Future Is Being Surpassed.","Alberto Martínez-Castelao, José Luis Górriz, Beatriz Fernández-Fernández, María José Soler, Juan F Navarro-González","10.3390/jcm14238326",{"id":5120,"title":7846,"authors":7847,"journal":7848,"year":157,"citationType":44,"doi":7849},"Harnessing GLP-1 Receptor Agonists for Obesity Treatment: Prospects and Obstacles on the Horizon.","Riad Mohammed Abdelrahman, Taha Hussein Musa, Ismail Adam Arbab, Mohsen Hussein Suliman, Eltieb Omer Ahmed","Journal of obesity","10.1016/J.DRUDIS.2025.104333",{"id":5117,"title":7851,"authors":7852,"journal":7853,"year":157,"citationType":44,"doi":7854},"Gastrointestinal Adverse Effects of Anti-Obesity Medications in Non-Diabetic Adults: A Systematic Review.","Ehab Takrori, Supriya Peshin, Sakshi Singal","Medicina (Kaunas, Lithuania)","10.2147/CPAA.S497904",{"id":5,"title":7856,"authors":155,"journal":7857,"year":478,"citationType":3339,"doi":7858,"researchPaperId":7859},"Triple-Hormone-Receptor Agonist Retatrutide for Obesity: Phase 2 Trial","New England Journal of Medicine","10.1056/NEJMoa2301972","pubmed_37366315",{"id":7861,"title":7862,"authors":7863,"journal":7864,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":7865},1582,"Retatrutide, a GIP, GLP-1 and glucagon receptor agonist, for people with type 2 diabetes: a randomised, double-blind, placebo and active-controlled, parallel-group, phase 2 trial conducted in the USA.","Rosenstock J, Frias J, Jastreboff AM, Du Y, Lou J, Gurbuz S, Thomas MK, Hartman ML, Haupt A, Milicevic Z, Coskun T","Lancet (London, England)","10.1016/S0140-6736(23)01053-X",{"id":7867,"title":7868,"authors":7869,"journal":1493,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":7870},1583,"Retatrutide-A Game Changer in Obesity Pharmacotherapy.","Katsi V, Koutsopoulos G, Fragoulis C, Dimitriadis K, Tsioufis K","10.3390/biom15060796",{"id":7872,"title":7873,"authors":7874,"journal":1145,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":7875},1584,"The power of three: Retatrutide's role in modern obesity and diabetes therapy.","Abdul-Rahman T, Roy P, Ahmed FK, Mueller-Gomez JL, Sarkar S, Garg N, Femi-Lawal VO, Wireko AA, Thaalibi HI, Hashmi MU, Dzebu AS, Banimusa SB, Sood A","10.1016/j.ejphar.2024.177095",{"id":7877,"title":7878,"authors":7879,"journal":7880,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":7881},1585,"Triple hormone receptor agonist retatrutide for metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease: a randomized phase 2a trial.","Sanyal AJ, Kaplan LM, Frias JP, Brouwers B, Wu Q, Thomas MK, Harris C, Schloot NC, Du Y, Mather KJ, Haupt A, Hartman ML","Nature medicine","10.1038/s41591-024-03018-2",{"id":7883,"title":7884,"authors":7885,"journal":7886,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":7887},1586,"Effects of once-weekly subcutaneous retatrutide on weight and metabolic markers: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.","Pasqualotto E, Ferreira ROM, Chavez MP, Hohl A, Ronsoni MF, Pasqualotto T, Moraes FCA, Hespanhol L, Figueiredo Watanabe JM, Lütkemeyer C, van de Sande-Lee S","Metabolism open","10.1016/j.metop.2024.100321",{"id":7889,"title":7890,"authors":7891,"journal":3352,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":7892},1587,"Retatrutide showing promise in obesity (and type 2 diabetes).","Doggrell SA","10.1080/13543784.2023.2283020",{"id":7894,"title":7895,"authors":7896,"journal":4167,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":7897},1588,"Triple-Hormone-Receptor Agonist Retatrutide for Obesity. Reply.","Jastreboff AM, Kaplan LM, Hartman ML","10.1056/NEJMc2310645",{"id":7899,"title":7900,"authors":7901,"journal":7902,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":7903},1589,"A review of an investigational drug retatrutide, a novel triple agonist agent for the treatment of obesity.","Kaur M, Misra S","European journal of clinical pharmacology","10.1007/s00228-024-03646-0",{"id":7905,"title":7906,"authors":7907,"journal":7908,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":7909},1590,"Retatrutide.","Ramsbacher N","Clinical diabetes : a publication of the American Diabetes Association","10.2337/cd24-0062",{"id":7911,"title":7912,"authors":7913,"journal":7914,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":7915},1591,"Effects of retatrutide on body composition in people with type 2 diabetes: a substudy of a phase 2, double-blind, parallel-group, placebo-controlled, randomised trial.","Coskun T, Wu Q, Schloot NC, Haupt A, Milicevic Z, Khouli C, Harris C","The lancet. Diabetes & endocrinology","10.1016/S2213-8587(25)00092-0",{"id":7917,"title":7918,"authors":7919,"journal":6723,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":7920},1592,"Efficacy and Safety of GLP-1 Medicines for Type 2 Diabetes and Obesity.","Drucker DJ","10.2337/dci24-0003",{"id":7922,"title":7923,"authors":7924,"journal":7925,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":7926},1593,"Structural insights into the triple agonism at GLP-1R, GIPR and GCGR manifested by retatrutide.","Li W, Zhou Q, Cong Z, Yuan Q, Li W, Zhao F, Xu HE, Zhao LH, Yang D, Wang MW","Cell discovery","10.1038/s41421-024-00700-0",{"id":7928,"title":7929,"authors":7930,"journal":7931,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":7932},1594,"Efficacy and safety of retatrutide for the treatment of obesity: a systematic review of clinical trials.","Misra S, Narayan RK, Kaur M","Journal of basic and clinical physiology and pharmacology","10.1515/jbcpp-2025-0113",{"id":7934,"title":7935,"authors":7936,"journal":7937,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":7938},1595,"Efficacy and safety of retatrutide, a novel GLP-1, GIP, and glucagon receptor agonist for obesity treatment: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.","Abdrabou Abouelmagd A, Abdelrehim AM, Bashir MN, Abdelsalam F, Marey A, Tanas Y, Abuklish DM, Belal MM","Proceedings (Baylor University. Medical Center)","10.1080/08998280.2025.2456441",{"id":7940,"title":7941,"authors":7942,"journal":7022,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":7943},1596,"Comparison of the effects of Liraglutide, Tirzepatide, and Retatrutide on diabetic kidney disease in db/db mice.","Ma J, Hu X, Zhang W, Tao M, Wang M, Lu W","10.1007/s12020-024-03998-8",{"id":7945,"title":7946,"authors":7947,"journal":6694,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":7948},1597,"What is the pipeline for future medications for obesity?","Melson E, Ashraf U, Papamargaritis D, Davies MJ","10.1038/s41366-024-01473-y",{"id":7950,"title":7951,"authors":7952,"journal":3352,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":7953},1598,"Retatrutide: a triple incretin receptor agonist for obesity management.","Ray A","10.1080/13543784.2023.2276754",{"id":7955,"title":7956,"authors":7957,"journal":7958,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":7959},1599,"Efficacy of Tirzepatide, Retatrutide, and Semaglutide for Weight Loss in Obese Individuals Without Diabetes.","Olowo-Oribi BA, Salway RJ","Academic emergency medicine : official journal of the Society for Academic Emergency Medicine","10.1111/acem.70088",{"id":7961,"title":7962,"authors":7963,"journal":7964,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":7965},1600,"The First Triple Agonist for Antiobesity: Retatrutide.","Tetelbaun L, Mullally JA, Frishman WH","Cardiology in review","10.1097/CRD.0000000000000793",{"id":7967,"title":7968,"authors":7969,"journal":6723,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":7970},1601,"Incretin-Based Weight Loss Pharmacotherapy: Can Resistance Exercise Optimize Changes in Body Composition?","Locatelli JC, Costa JG, Haynes A, Naylor LH, Fegan PG, Yeap BB, Green DJ","10.2337/dci23-0100",{"id":7972,"title":6953,"authors":6954,"journal":6955,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":6956},1602,{"id":7974,"title":7975,"authors":7976,"journal":7977,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":7978},1603,"Gut hormones and appetite regulation.","Hong SH, Choi KM","Current opinion in endocrinology, diabetes, and obesity","10.1097/MED.0000000000000859",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":6362,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":7981},"2026-01-05T22:11:58.918352","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/retatrutide.webp","4889.48","C69H42N6O","169076248","4-5 days","2381089-83-2","CC[C@H](C)C(C(=O)N[C@@H](CCC(=O)O)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC1=CC=C(C=C1)O)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(C)C)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(C)C)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCC(=O)O)C(=O)NCC(=O)NCC(=O)N2CCC[C@H]2C(=O)N[C@@H](CO)C(=O)N[C@@H](CO)C(=O)NCC(=O)N[C@@H](C)C(=O)N3CCC[C@H]3C(=O)N4CCC[C@H]4C(=O)N5CCC[C@H]5C(=O)N[C@@H](CO)C(=O)N)NC(=O)[C@H](CC6=CC=CC=C6)NC(=O)[C@H](C)NC(=O)C(C)(C)NC(=O)[C@H](CCC(=O)N)NC(=O)[C@H](C)NC(=O)[C@H](CCCCNC(=O)COCCOCCNC(=O)CC[C@@H](C(=O)O)NC(=O)CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@H](CCCCN)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(C)C)NC(=O)[C@@](C)(CC(C)C)NC(=O)C([C@@H](C)CC)NC(=O)[C@H](CO)NC(=O)[C@H](CC7=CC=C(C=C7)O)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@H](CO)NC(=O)[C@H]([C@@H](C)O)NC(=O)[C@H](CC8=CC=CC=C8)NC(=O)[C@H]([C@@H](C)O)NC(=O)CNC(=O)[C@H](CCC(=O)N)NC(=O)C(C)(C)NC(=O)[C@H](CC9=CC=C(C=C9)O)N",[7990,7993,7996,7999,8002,8005,8008,8011,8014],{"name":7991,"dose":7992,"frequency":7055,"route":5382},"Conservative Starting Dose (Week 1-4)","0.5 mg weekly",{"name":7994,"dose":7995,"frequency":7055,"route":5382},"Low Maintenance Dose (Week 4-8)","1 mg weekly",{"name":7997,"dose":7998,"frequency":7055,"route":5382},"Standard Escalation (Week 8-12)","2 mg weekly",{"name":8000,"dose":8001,"frequency":7055,"route":5382},"Moderate Weight Loss (Week 12-16)","4 mg weekly",{"name":8003,"dose":8004,"frequency":7055,"route":5382},"Advanced Weight Loss (Week 16-20)","8 mg weekly",{"name":8006,"dose":8007,"frequency":7055,"route":5382},"Maximum Efficacy (Week 20+)","12 mg weekly",{"name":8009,"dose":8010,"frequency":7055,"route":5382},"Type 2 Diabetes - Conservative Start","0.5-1 mg weekly",{"name":8012,"dose":8013,"frequency":7055,"route":5382},"Type 2 Diabetes - Maintenance","4-8 mg weekly",{"name":8015,"dose":8016,"frequency":7055,"route":5382},"Clinical Trial Protocol (Obesity Study)","1-2 mg weekly start",[7743,8018,8019,8020],"LY3437943","Triple G agonist","GLP-1/GIP/glucagon receptor tri-agonist",[6824,7078,8022],"Metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD/MASH)",{"human":8024,"animal":23,"inVitro":23,"uncertain":8025},"Phase 2 (NEJM 2023, PMID 37366315) showed up to ~24% body-weight reduction at 48 weeks in adults with obesity; a Phase 2a trial in MASLD (Nat Med 2024) showed substantial liver-fat reduction and MASH resolution in many participants. Phase 3 top-line results (reported Dec 2025) showed record weight loss (~28% at highest dose) but high discontinuation rates due to gastrointestinal adverse events.","Not yet FDA-approved; long-term cardiovascular outcomes, durability, and tolerability (GI side effects, discontinuations) remain open questions as Phase 3 programs continue.",[8027,8031,8035],{"finding":8028,"source":8029,"year":478,"link":8030,"evidenceLevel":46},"In a Phase 2 trial in adults with obesity, retatrutide (up to 12 mg weekly) produced mean weight loss up to 24.2% at 48 weeks, the largest seen for an investigational obesity agent at the time.","Phase 2 randomized trial (N Engl J Med)","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37366315/",{"finding":8032,"source":8033,"year":458,"link":8034,"evidenceLevel":46},"In a randomized Phase 2a trial in metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease, retatrutide markedly reduced liver fat and led to MASH resolution in a large proportion of treated participants.","Phase 2a randomized trial (Nat Med)","https://link.springer.com/article/10.1038/s41591-024-03018-2",{"finding":8036,"source":8037,"year":157,"link":8038,"evidenceLevel":46},"Phase 3 top-line results reported record weight loss (up to ~28.7% at 48 weeks) but with high discontinuation rates linked to gastrointestinal tolerability.","Phase 3 trial results (company announcement; news reports)","https://www.statnews.com/2025/12/11/eli-lilly-retatrutide-weight-loss-obesity-tolerability-trial-results/","Phase 3 results are recent top-line announcements not yet fully peer-reviewed; GI tolerability and dropout rates are significant concerns; not approved by any regulator; long-term safety and outcomes data pending.","Once-weekly subcutaneous injection; engineered balanced agonist of GLP-1, GIP, and glucagon receptors, combining appetite suppression, insulinotropic action, and energy expenditure. Long half-life supports weekly dosing (clinicaltrials.gov program under review).",[8042,8045],{"question":8043,"answer":8044},"Is retatrutide FDA approved?","No. It remains an investigational agent in Phase 3 development; approval has not been granted as of this review.",{"question":8046,"answer":8047},"How does retatrutide differ from semaglutide/tirzepatide?","It adds glucagon-receptor agonism to the GLP-1/GIP dual action of tirzepatide, which in trials produced larger weight loss but also more frequent GI side effects.",{"id":6362,"name":8049,"slug":8050,"description":8051,"fdaApproved":28,"wadaBanned":15,"views":1237,"shortDescription":8052,"peptideBenefits":8053,"benefits":8085,"peptideSideEffects":8099,"sideEffects":8159,"dosage":8180,"mechanism":8181,"safetyNote":8182,"athleteWarning":6656,"chemicalMakeup":8183,"citations":8184,"research":8322,"statsCache":8323,"imageUrl":8325,"molecularWeight":8326,"molecularFormula":8327,"drugbankId":3196,"pubchemId":8328,"sequence":6813,"halfLife":8329,"administrationRoute":540,"casNumber":8330,"smiles":8331,"totalMentions":985,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"protocols":8332,"aliases":8351,"researchAreas":8356,"evidence":8360,"keyStudies":8365,"limitations":8378,"pharmacology":8379,"faqs":8380,"lastReviewed":359},"Semaglutide","semaglutide","Semaglutide is a medication that mimics GLP-1, a hormone your gut naturally releases after eating. It's the active ingredient in brand names you may have heard: Ozempic (for diabetes) and Wegovy (for weight loss). **How does it work?** When you eat, your body releases GLP-1 to signal fullness. Semaglutide does the same thing, but much more powerfully and for much longer. It tells your brain you're satisfied, slows down how fast food leaves your stomach, and helps your pancreas release insulin more effectively. **What the research shows:** • FDA-approved for type 2 diabetes and chronic weight management • Clinical trials show average weight loss of 15-17% of body weight • Reduces risk of heart attacks, strokes, and cardiovascular death • May protect kidneys in people with diabetes • Emerging research suggests potential brain-protective benefits **Available forms:** Weekly injection (Ozempic, Wegovy) or daily oral tablet (Rybelsus) **Common side effects:** Nausea, especially when starting — usually improves over time. Your doctor will typically start you on a low dose and gradually increase it. --- **Sources:** Ghusn W, et al. (2023) Healthcare. DOI:10.3390/healthcare13222922 | Müller TD, et al. (2023) Biomolecules. DOI:10.3390/biom15111574 | Clinical trial data from STEP and SUSTAIN programs","GLP-1 receptor agonist for weight loss and type 2 diabetes management",[8054,8058,8059,8062,8064,8065,8068,8070,8073,8076,8079,8081,8083],{"id":7440,"benefit":8055,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":8056,"sourceUrl":8057,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},"Significant weight loss","1p9t4ql","https://reddit.com/r/Semaglutide/comments/1p9t4ql/who_has_been_on_semaglutide_for_more_than_2_years/",{"id":4579,"benefit":6605,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":8056,"sourceUrl":8057,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":8060,"benefit":8061,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":8056,"sourceUrl":8057,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},17,"Reduced cardiovascular 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0.80)","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37952131/",{"id":8080,"benefit":8067,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},819,{"id":8082,"benefit":8055,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},820,{"id":8084,"benefit":8072,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},821,[8086,8087,8088,8089,8090,8091,8092,8093,8094,8095,8096,8097,8098],{"id":7440,"benefit":8055,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":8056,"sourceUrl":8057,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":4579,"benefit":6605,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":8056,"sourceUrl":8057,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":8060,"benefit":8061,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":8056,"sourceUrl":8057,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":8063,"benefit":6869,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":8056,"sourceUrl":8057,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":5134,"benefit":7759,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":8056,"sourceUrl":8057,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":8066,"benefit":8067,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},{"id":8069,"benefit":8055,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},{"id":8071,"benefit":8072,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},{"id":6637,"benefit":8074,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":8075,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":6641,"benefit":8077,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":8078,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":8080,"benefit":8067,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},{"id":8082,"benefit":8055,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},{"id":8084,"benefit":8072,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},[8100,8103,8104,8105,8106,8108,8109,8111,8113,8116,8118,8120,8125,8129,8133,8136,8140,8144,8151,8155],{"id":8101,"sideEffect":7807,"description":8102,"severity":100,"frequency":23,"source":600,"sourceType":600,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":23,"userReportsCount":23,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},638,"Avoid: 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titration)",{"name":8342,"dose":8343,"frequency":8344,"route":311},"Diabetes Management","0.5-1mg","Weekly",{"name":8346,"dose":8343,"frequency":8344,"route":311},"Cardiovascular Protection",{"name":8348,"dose":8349,"frequency":8350,"route":311},"Tolerability-Based","0.25-2.4mg","Weekly (individualized)",[8352,8353,8354,8355],"Ozempic (type 2 diabetes brand)","Wegovy (obesity brand)","GLP-1 receptor agonist","Semaglutide sodium",[7078,6824,8357,8358,8359],"Cardiovascular risk reduction","Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (investigational)","Heart failure (investigational)",{"human":8361,"animal":8362,"inVitro":8363,"uncertain":8364},"Semaglutide is FDA-approved (Ozempic 2017 for type 2 diabetes; Wegovy 2021 for obesity; 2024 for cardiovascular risk reduction in adults with overweight/obesity and established CVD). STEP 1 reported ~14.9% mean weight loss at 68 weeks; SELECT (n=17,604) showed a 20% reduction in major adverse cardiovascular events.","Rodent and primate studies established GLP-1-mediated weight loss and glycemic effects.","Cell-based studies characterize GLP-1 receptor agonism, glucose-stimulated insulin secretion and appetite signaling.","Long-term effects beyond trial durations, real-world persistence, muscle-loss concerns during weight loss, and the clinical importance of GI adverse events (nausea, gallbladder events) continue to be studied.",[8366,8370,8374],{"finding":8367,"source":8368,"year":465,"link":8369,"evidenceLevel":46},"STEP 1: once-weekly semaglutide 2.4 mg plus lifestyle intervention produced ~14.9% mean body-weight reduction at 68 weeks vs 2.4% with placebo.","Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 3 trial (NEJM)","https://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMoa2032183",{"finding":8371,"source":8372,"year":478,"link":8373,"evidenceLevel":46},"SELECT: in 17,604 adults with cardiovascular disease and overweight/obesity but without diabetes, semaglutide 2.4 mg reduced major adverse cardiovascular events by 20% vs placebo over ~40 months.","Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled cardiovascular outcomes trial (NEJM)","https://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMoa2307563",{"finding":8375,"source":8376,"year":458,"link":8377,"evidenceLevel":46},"FDA approved the expanded indication for Wegovy to reduce cardiovascular risk in adults with known heart disease and overweight or obesity.","FDA label expansion (March 2024)","https://www.hcplive.com/view/semaglutide-wegovy-receives-fda-label-expansion-to-include-cardiovascular-risk-reduction","GI side effects (nausea, vomiting, diarrhea) are common; rare but serious events (pancreatitis, gallbladder disease; thyroid C-cell tumors in rodents) warrant caution; high cost and access barriers; weight regain typically follows discontinuation; long-term safety beyond 2-4 years is still accruing.","GLP-1 receptor agonist with once-weekly subcutaneous dosing (Ozempic/Wegovy; an oral formulation exists for type 2 diabetes). Elimination half-life is approximately 1 week (steady state in ~4-5 weeks). Dose titration is used to reduce GI intolerance.",[8381,8384],{"question":8382,"answer":8383},"What is the difference between Ozempic and Wegovy?","Same active drug (semaglutide); Ozempic is approved for type 2 diabetes (doses up to 2 mg), Wegovy for chronic weight management (2.4 mg) and cardiovascular risk reduction.",{"question":8385,"answer":8386},"Do you regain weight after stopping semaglutide?","Trials show substantial weight regain after discontinuation; weight management is typically considered chronic therapy.",{"id":2222,"name":8388,"slug":8389,"description":8390,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":15,"views":2222,"shortDescription":8391,"researchStatus":8392,"peptideBenefits":8393,"benefits":8401,"peptideSideEffects":8406,"sideEffects":8423,"dosage":6903,"mechanism":8433,"safetyNote":6905,"athleteWarning":8434,"chemicalMakeup":8435,"citations":8436,"research":8559,"statsCache":8560,"imageUrl":8562,"molecularWeight":7045,"molecularFormula":8563,"pubchemId":8564,"sequence":6813,"halfLife":8565,"casNumber":8566,"smiles":8567,"totalMentions":8,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"protocols":8568,"aliases":8583,"researchAreas":8587,"evidence":8591,"keyStudies":8596,"limitations":8605,"pharmacology":8606,"faqs":8607,"lastReviewed":359},"Survodutide","survodutide","Survodutide (BI 456906) is an investigational dual GLP-1/glucagon receptor agonist being developed by Boehringer Ingelheim for treatment of obesity, type 2 diabetes, and metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis (MASH/NASH). The dual agonist mechanism combines GLP-1's appetite suppression and glucose-lowering effects with glucagon's ability to increase energy expenditure and promote hepatic fat oxidation. This combination addresses metabolic disease from multiple angles, potentially offering advantages over GLP-1-only agonists. Clinical trials have demonstrated significant weight loss approaching 20% of body weight in some studies, along with improvements in liver fat and markers of liver inflammation and fibrosis. The glucagon component specifically targets hepatic metabolism, making survodutide particularly relevant for fatty liver disease. Phase 3 clinical trials are ongoing for multiple metabolic indications. Survodutide represents the next generation of incretin-based therapies designed to provide comprehensive metabolic benefits beyond glucose control and weight loss.","Dual GLP-1/glucagon receptor agonist in development for metabolic diseases","Phase 2 Clinical Trials - GLP-1/Glucagon dual agonist",[8394,8396,8397,8399],{"id":6340,"benefit":8395,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Metabolic health support",{"id":3638,"benefit":7757,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":2537,"benefit":8398,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Appetite control",{"id":6337,"benefit":8400,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Advanced weight 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loss",{"id":5088,"sideEffect":6623,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":7130,"sideEffect":1878,"description":23,"severity":1879,"frequency":8414,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":7820,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":8388,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":6634,"management":8415,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},"Very common (55-75%)","Slower dose escalation",{"id":8417,"sideEffect":8418,"description":23,"severity":1669,"frequency":5476,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":6892,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},292,"GI 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agonist targeting GLP-1 and glucagon receptors for synergistic effects","Not WADA banned - investigational weight management compound safe for competitive athletes under medical supervision","GLP-1/glucagon dual agonist peptide analog",[8437,8439,8441,8446,8451,8456,8461,8466,8471,8477,8479,8485,8490,8496,8498,8503,8508,8514,8519,8524,8529,8534,8540,8542,8547,8549,8554],{"id":8438,"title":7842,"authors":7843,"journal":3472,"year":157,"citationType":44,"doi":7844},97,{"id":8440,"title":7846,"authors":7847,"journal":7848,"year":157,"citationType":44,"doi":7849},98,{"id":8442,"title":8443,"authors":8444,"journal":6966,"year":1624,"citationType":44,"doi":8445},99,"Survodutide for treatment of obesity: Baseline characteristics of participants in a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial (SYNCHRONIZE™-1).","Carel W le Roux, Sean Wharton, Biykem Bozkurt, Elke Platz, Gabriele Bleckert","10.1080/00325481.2021.2002616",{"id":8447,"title":8448,"authors":8449,"journal":4167,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":8450},1814,"A Phase 2 Randomized Trial of Survodutide in MASH and Fibrosis.","Sanyal AJ, Bedossa P, Fraessdorf M, Neff GW, Lawitz E, Bugianesi E, Anstee QM, Hussain SA, Newsome PN, Ratziu V, Hosseini-Tabatabaei A, Schattenberg JM, Noureddin M, Alkhouri N, Younes R, 1404-0043 Trial Investigators","10.1056/NEJMoa2401755",{"id":8452,"title":8453,"authors":8454,"journal":7914,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":8455},1815,"Glucagon and GLP-1 receptor dual agonist survodutide for obesity: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, dose-finding phase 2 trial.","le Roux CW, Steen O, Lucas KJ, Startseva E, Unseld A, Hennige AM","10.1016/S2213-8587(23)00356-X",{"id":8457,"title":8458,"authors":8459,"journal":8308,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":8460},1816,"Dose-response effects on HbA(1c) and bodyweight reduction of survodutide, a dual glucagon/GLP-1 receptor agonist, compared with placebo and open-label semaglutide in people with type 2 diabetes: a randomised clinical trial.","Blüher M, Rosenstock J, Hoefler J, Manuel R, Hennige AM","10.1007/s00125-023-06053-9",{"id":8462,"title":8463,"authors":8464,"journal":3352,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":8465},1817,"Survodutide in MASH: bridging the gap between hepatic and systemic metabolic dysfunction.","Kaya E, Yilmaz Y, Alkhouri N","10.1080/13543784.2024.2441865",{"id":8467,"title":8468,"authors":8469,"journal":6966,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":8470},1818,"The dual GCGR/GLP-1R agonist survodutide: Biomarkers and pharmacological profiling for clinical candidate selection.","Thomas L, Martel E, Rist W, Uphues I, Hamprecht D, Neubauer H, Augustin R","10.1111/dom.15551",{"id":8472,"title":8473,"authors":8474,"journal":8475,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":8476},1819,"Survodutide for the Treatment of Obesity: Rationale and Design of the SYNCHRONIZE Cardiovascular Outcomes Trial.","Kosiborod MN, Platz E, Wharton S, le Roux CW, Brueckmann M, Ajaz Hussain S, Unseld A, Startseva E, Kaplan LM, SYNCHRONIZE–CVOT Trial Committees and Investigators","JACC. Heart failure","10.1016/j.jchf.2024.09.004",{"id":8478,"title":7918,"authors":7919,"journal":6723,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":7920},1820,{"id":8480,"title":8481,"authors":8482,"journal":8483,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":8484},1821,"Efficacy, tolerability and pharmacokinetics of survodutide, a glucagon/glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor dual agonist, in cirrhosis.","Lawitz EJ, Fraessdorf M, Neff GW, Schattenberg JM, Noureddin M, Alkhouri N, Schmid B, Andrews CP, Takács I, Hussain SA, Fenske WK, Gane EJ, Hosseini-Tabatabaei A, Sanyal AJ, Mazo DF, Younes R, NCT05296733 Investigators","Journal of hepatology","10.1016/j.jhep.2024.06.003",{"id":8486,"title":8487,"authors":8488,"journal":6414,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":8489},1822,"Survodutide for treatment of obesity: rationale and design of two randomized phase 3 clinical trials (SYNCHRONIZE™-1 and -2).","Wharton S, le Roux CW, Kosiborod MN, Platz E, Brueckmann M, Jastreboff AM, Ajaz Hussain S, Pedersen SD, Borowska L, Unseld A, Kloer IM, Kaplan LM, SYNCHRONIZE‐1 and ‐2 trial committees and investigators","10.1002/oby.24184",{"id":8491,"title":8492,"authors":8493,"journal":8494,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":8495},1823,"Effect of survodutide, a glucagon and GLP-1 receptor dual agonist, on weight loss: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.","Wan H, Xu N, Wang L, Liu Y, Fatahi S, Sohouli MH, Guimarães NS","Diabetology & metabolic syndrome","10.1186/s13098-024-01501-x",{"id":8497,"title":6953,"authors":6954,"journal":6955,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":6956},1824,{"id":8499,"title":8500,"authors":8501,"journal":6966,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":8502},1825,"Survodutide, a glucagon receptor/glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor dual agonist, improves blood pressure in adults with obesity: A post hoc analysis from a randomized, placebo-controlled, dose-finding, phase 2 trial.","le Roux CW, Steen O, Lucas KJ, Ekinci EI, Startseva E, Unseld A, Hussain SA, Hennige AM","10.1111/dom.16052",{"id":8504,"title":8505,"authors":8506,"journal":7964,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":8507},1826,"Survodutide: A Dual GLP-1/Glucagon Agonist Reshaping Cardiometabolic Care.","Arun AJ, Darji B, Baig M, Frishman WH, Aronow WS","10.1097/CRD.0000000000001062",{"id":8509,"title":8510,"authors":8511,"journal":8512,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":8513},1827,"GLP-1, GIP/GLP-1, and GCGR/GLP-1 receptor agonists: Novel therapeutic agents for metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis.","Singh A, Sohal A, Batta A","World journal of gastroenterology","10.3748/wjg.v30.i48.5205",{"id":8515,"title":8516,"authors":8517,"journal":6972,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":8518},1828,"The impact of weight loss on fat-free mass, muscle, bone and hematopoiesis health: Implications for emerging pharmacotherapies aiming at fat reduction and lean mass preservation.","Stefanakis K, Kokkorakis M, Mantzoros CS","10.1016/j.metabol.2024.156057",{"id":8520,"title":8521,"authors":8522,"journal":3183,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":8523},1829,"Therapeutic horizons in metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis.","Newsome PN, Loomba R","10.1172/JCI186425",{"id":8525,"title":8526,"authors":8527,"journal":6966,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":8528},1830,"Efficacy and safety of survodutide on glycemic control and weight loss in adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis.","Xiao YJ, Yu S, Zhang YL, Chen J, Liu YQ, Liu XL, Sun CF, Deng CL","10.1111/dom.70105",{"id":8530,"title":8531,"authors":8532,"journal":1341,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":8533},1831,"Comparison of pharmacological therapies in metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis for fibrosis regression and MASH resolution: Systematic review and network meta-analysis.","Souza M, Al-Sharif L, Antunes VLJ, Huang DQ, Loomba R","10.1097/HEP.0000000000001254",{"id":8535,"title":8536,"authors":8537,"journal":8538,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":8539},1832,"Perspectives in weight control in diabetes - Survodutide.","Klein T, Augustin R, Hennige AM","Diabetes research and clinical practice","10.1016/j.diabres.2023.110779",{"id":8541,"title":6976,"authors":6977,"journal":3059,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":6978},1833,{"id":8543,"title":8544,"authors":8545,"journal":7016,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":8546},1834,"Efficacy and Safety of Twincretin Survodutide, a Dual Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 and Glucagon Receptor Agonist as an Anti-Obesity and Anti-Diabetes Medication: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.","Dutta D, Kamrul-Hasan ABM, Joshi A, Dhall A, Nagendra L, Sharma M","10.4103/ijem.ijem_366_24",{"id":8548,"title":6981,"authors":6982,"journal":6983,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":6984},1835,{"id":8550,"title":8551,"authors":8552,"journal":3352,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":8553},1836,"The pleiotropic effects of glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists in patients with metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis: a review for gastroenterologists.","Alkhouri N, Charlton M, Gray M, Noureddin M","10.1080/13543784.2025.2473062",{"id":8555,"title":8556,"authors":8557,"journal":7937,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":8558},1837,"Survodutide: a novel peptide for treatment of obesity and metabolic diseases.","Vinton TY","10.1080/08998280.2025.2498840",[],{"totalProtocols":861,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":8,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":8561},"2026-01-05T22:12:07.643249","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/survodutide.webp","C192H289N47O61","168429725","~1 week","2805997-46-8","CC[C@H](C)[C@@H](C(=O)N[C@H](CCCCNC(=O)CNC(=O)CNC(=O)[C@@H](CO)NC(=O)CNC(=O)[C@@H](CO)NC(=O)CNC(=O)CCC(C(=O)O)NC(=O)CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC(=O)O)C(=O)N[C@H](CC1=CNC2=CC=CC=C21)C(=O)N[C@H](CC(C)C)C(=O)N[C@H](CCC(=O)O)C(=O)N[C@H](CO)C(=O)N[C@H](C)C(=O)N)NC(=O)[C@H](CC3=CC=CC=C3)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@H](CCCCN)NC(=O)[C@H](C)NC(=O)[C@H](C)NC(=O)[C@H](CCCNC(=N)N)NC(=O)[C@H](CCC(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(C)C)NC(=O)[C@@H](CC4=CC=C(C=C4)O)NC(=O)[C@H](CCCCN)NC(=O)[C@H](CO)NC(=O)[C@H](CC5=CC=C(C=C5)O)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@H](CO)NC(=O)[C@H]([C@@H](C)O)NC(=O)[C@H](CC6=CC=CC=C6)NC(=O)[C@H]([C@@H](C)O)NC(=O)CNC(=O)[C@H](CCC(=O)N)NC(=O)C7(CCC7)NC(=O)[C@H](CC8=CNC=N8)N",[8569,8573,8577,8580],{"name":8570,"dose":8571,"frequency":8572,"route":311},"Obesity - Conservative Start","0.6mg titrated over 24 weeks","Once weekly with 4-week intervals",{"name":8574,"dose":8575,"frequency":7055,"route":8576},"Obesity - Standard Protocol","3.6-6.0mg","Subcutaneous (abdomen/thigh)",{"name":8578,"dose":8579,"frequency":7055,"route":311},"MASH Treatment","2.4-4.8mg",{"name":8581,"dose":8582,"frequency":7055,"route":311},"Type 2 Diabetes","0.3-2.7mg",[8584,8585,8586],"BI 456906","Survodutide (INN)","GLP-1/glucagon dual receptor agonist",[8588,8589,7078,8590],"Obesity and weight loss","Metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis (MASH)","Cardiometabolic disease",{"human":8592,"animal":8593,"inVitro":8594,"uncertain":8595},"In a Phase 2 dose-finding trial in obesity, survodutide up to 4.8 mg weekly produced about 14.9% mean weight loss at 46 weeks versus about 2.8% with placebo. In a Phase 2 MASH trial, up to 83% of patients at the 4.8 mg dose achieved MASH resolution without worsening of fibrosis. Phase 3 programs in obesity and MASH are ongoing; the drug is not yet approved.","Mechanistic reviews of the dual-agonist class describe increased energy expenditure from glucagon agonism added to GLP-1 in obese rodent models, reducing body weight and liver fat beyond GLP-1 alone.","Survodutide is a balanced peptide dual agonist at the GLP-1 and glucagon (GCG) receptors.","Long-term cardiovascular outcomes, effects on hard MASH endpoints (cirrhosis, mortality), and Phase 3 efficacy and safety results are still pending.",[8597,8601],{"finding":8598,"source":8599,"year":458,"link":8600,"evidenceLevel":46},"Phase 2 dose-finding trial: survodutide 4.8 mg/week achieved about 14.9% mean weight loss at 46 weeks vs about 2.8% with placebo; the most common adverse events were gastrointestinal (nausea, vomiting, diarrhea).","Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled Phase 2 trial (Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology)","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38330987/",{"finding":8602,"source":8603,"year":458,"link":8604,"evidenceLevel":46},"Phase 2 MASH trial: up to 83% of patients receiving 4.8 mg weekly achieved MASH resolution without worsening of fibrosis (vs 18.2% with placebo).","Randomized Phase 2 trial (New England Journal of Medicine)","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38847460/","Evidence is Phase 2 only; Phase 3 results are pending; gastrointestinal tolerability mirrors other incretin drugs; no approved indication yet; long-term safety (pancreatic, thyroid, cardiovascular) remains under study.","Survodutide (BI 456906) is an investigational once-weekly subcutaneous dual GLP-1/glucagon receptor agonist designed to combine glucagon-mediated energy expenditure with GLP-1-mediated appetite suppression; Phase 2 doses ranged up to 4.8 mg weekly.",[8608,8611],{"question":8609,"answer":8610},"Is survodutide approved?","No. It is an investigational drug (Boehringer Ingelheim) with positive Phase 2 results in obesity and MASH; Phase 3 trials are ongoing.",{"question":8612,"answer":8613},"How does survodutide differ from semaglutide?","Survodutide activates both the GLP-1 and glucagon receptors (a dual agonist), adding a glucagon-mediated energy-expenditure component, whereas semaglutide activates GLP-1 only.",{"id":5369,"name":8615,"slug":8616,"description":8617,"fdaApproved":28,"wadaBanned":15,"views":2286,"shortDescription":8618,"peptideBenefits":8619,"benefits":8650,"peptideSideEffects":8665,"sideEffects":8694,"dosage":8708,"mechanism":8709,"safetyNote":8710,"athleteWarning":6656,"chemicalMakeup":8711,"citations":8712,"research":8833,"statsCache":8834,"imageUrl":8837,"molecularWeight":8838,"molecularFormula":8839,"drugbankId":8840,"pubchemId":8841,"sequence":6813,"halfLife":8842,"administrationRoute":540,"casNumber":8843,"totalMentions":8835,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"protocols":8844,"aliases":8863,"researchAreas":8868,"evidence":8872,"keyStudies":8877,"limitations":8885,"pharmacology":8886,"faqs":8887,"lastReviewed":359},"Tirzepatide","tirzepatide","Tirzepatide is a groundbreaking medication that activates two hormone receptors at once — GLP-1 and GIP — making it more effective than older weight loss medications. You may know it by its brand names: Mounjaro (for diabetes) or Zepbound (for weight loss). **Why is it different?** Most weight loss medications target just one pathway. Tirzepatide hits two, mimicking the natural hormonal response your body has after eating. This \"dual action\" approach is similar to what happens after weight loss surgery, but without the surgery. **What the research shows:** • FDA-approved for type 2 diabetes and obesity • Clinical trials show weight loss up to 22% of body weight — unprecedented for a medication • Significantly improves blood sugar control • Reduces liver fat (helpful for fatty liver disease) • Lowers cardiovascular risk in people with obesity and heart failure **How it's taken:** Once-weekly injection under the skin, with doses gradually increased over time. **What to expect:** Like similar medications, nausea is common at first but usually improves. Starting low and increasing slowly helps minimize side effects. --- **Sources:** Coskun T, et al. (2023) Drug Design, Development and Therapy. DOI:10.2147/DDDT.S559919 | Targher G, et al. (2025) Clinical and Molecular Hepatology. DOI:10.3350/cmh.2025.0744 | SURMOUNT and SURPASS clinical trial programs","Dual GLP-1/GIP receptor agonist with superior weight loss efficacy",[8620,8622,8624,8626,8627,8629,8631,8634,8637,8639,8642,8644,8646,8648],{"id":6627,"benefit":8621,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Superior weight loss vs GLP-1 alone",{"id":5139,"benefit":8623,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Enhanced glycemic control",{"id":1636,"benefit":8625,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Dual hormone pathway activation",{"id":5144,"benefit":1185,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3760,"benefit":8628,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Improved metabolic 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mg Weekly","Dual GLP-1/GIP receptor agonist for enhanced metabolic effects","FDA approved. Most common side effects are GI-related and typically mild to moderate.","Dual GIP/GLP-1 receptor agonist, 39-amino-acid modified peptide",[8713,8717,8721,8722,8727,8732,8737,8742,8747,8752,8757,8762,8768,8773,8779,8784,8789,8794,8800,8805,8811,8816,8821,8826,8828],{"id":11,"title":8714,"authors":155,"journal":7857,"year":458,"citationType":4393,"doi":8715,"researchPaperId":8716},"3-year Tirzepatide Trial for Obesity and Diabetes Prevention","10.1056/NEJMoa2410819","pubmed_39536238",{"id":6502,"title":8718,"authors":155,"journal":7857,"year":458,"citationType":4393,"doi":8719,"researchPaperId":8720},"Tirzepatide for Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction (SUMMIT)","10.1056/NEJMoa2410027","pubmed_39555826",{"id":4284,"title":8186,"authors":155,"journal":7857,"year":157,"citationType":4393,"doi":8187,"researchPaperId":8188},{"id":8723,"title":8724,"authors":8725,"journal":6661,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":8726},2045,"Continued Treatment With Tirzepatide for Maintenance of Weight Reduction in Adults With Obesity: The SURMOUNT-4 Randomized Clinical Trial.","Aronne LJ, Sattar N, Horn DB, Bays HE, Wharton S, Lin WY, Ahmad NN, Zhang S, Liao R, Bunck MC, Jouravskaya I, Murphy MA, SURMOUNT-4 Investigators","10.1001/jama.2023.24945",{"id":8728,"title":8729,"authors":8730,"journal":4167,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":8731},2046,"Tirzepatide versus Semaglutide Once Weekly in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes.","Frías JP, Davies MJ, Rosenstock J, Pérez Manghi FC, Fernández Landó L, Bergman BK, Liu B, Cui X, Brown K, SURPASS-2 Investigators","10.1056/NEJMoa2107519",{"id":8733,"title":8734,"authors":8735,"journal":4167,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":8736},2047,"Tirzepatide Once Weekly for the Treatment of Obesity.","Jastreboff AM, Aronne LJ, Ahmad NN, Wharton S, Connery L, Alves B, Kiyosue A, Zhang S, Liu B, Bunck MC, Stefanski A, SURMOUNT-1 Investigators","10.1056/NEJMoa2206038",{"id":8738,"title":8739,"authors":8740,"journal":4167,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":8741},2048,"Tirzepatide for the Treatment of Obstructive Sleep Apnea and Obesity.","Malhotra A, Grunstein RR, Fietze I, Weaver TE, Redline S, Azarbarzin A, Sands SA, Schwab RJ, Dunn JP, Chakladar S, Bunck MC, Bednarik J, SURMOUNT-OSA Investigators","10.1056/NEJMoa2404881",{"id":8743,"title":8744,"authors":8745,"journal":7864,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":8746},2049,"Tirzepatide once weekly for the treatment of obesity in people with type 2 diabetes (SURMOUNT-2): a double-blind, randomised, multicentre, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial.","Garvey WT, Frias JP, Jastreboff AM, le Roux CW, Sattar N, Aizenberg D, Mao H, Zhang S, Ahmad NN, Bunck MC, Benabbad I, Zhang XM, SURMOUNT-2 investigators","10.1016/S0140-6736(23)01200-X",{"id":8748,"title":8749,"authors":8750,"journal":6661,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":8751},2050,"Tirzepatide for Weight Reduction in Chinese Adults With Obesity: The SURMOUNT-CN Randomized Clinical Trial.","Zhao L, Cheng Z, Lu Y, Liu M, Chen H, Zhang M, Wang R, Yuan Y, Li X","10.1001/jama.2024.9217",{"id":8753,"title":8754,"authors":8755,"journal":7864,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":8756},2051,"Efficacy and safety of a novel dual GIP and GLP-1 receptor agonist tirzepatide in patients with type 2 diabetes (SURPASS-1): a double-blind, randomised, phase 3 trial.","Rosenstock J, Wysham C, Frías JP, Kaneko S, Lee CJ, Fernández Landó L, Mao H, Cui X, Karanikas CA, Thieu VT","10.1016/S0140-6736(21)01324-6",{"id":8758,"title":8759,"authors":8760,"journal":6661,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":8761},2052,"Effect of Subcutaneous Tirzepatide vs Placebo Added to Titrated Insulin Glargine on Glycemic Control in Patients With Type 2 Diabetes: The SURPASS-5 Randomized Clinical Trial.","Dahl D, Onishi Y, Norwood P, Huh R, Bray R, Patel H, Rodríguez Á","10.1001/jama.2022.0078",{"id":8763,"title":8764,"authors":8765,"journal":8766,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":8767},2053,"Semaglutide vs Tirzepatide for Weight Loss in Adults With Overweight or Obesity.","Rodriguez PJ, Goodwin Cartwright BM, Gratzl S, Brar R, Baker C, Gluckman TJ, Stucky NL","JAMA internal medicine","10.1001/jamainternmed.2024.2525",{"id":8769,"title":8770,"authors":8771,"journal":4167,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":8772},2054,"Tirzepatide for Metabolic Dysfunction-Associated Steatohepatitis with Liver Fibrosis.","Loomba R, Hartman ML, Lawitz EJ, Vuppalanchi R, Boursier J, Bugianesi E, Yoneda M, Behling C, Cummings OW, Tang Y, Brouwers B, Robins DA, Nikooie A, Bunck MC, Haupt A, Sanyal AJ, SYNERGY-NASH Investigators","10.1056/NEJMoa2401943",{"id":8774,"title":8775,"authors":8776,"journal":8777,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":8778},2055,"Comparison of tirzepatide and dulaglutide on major adverse cardiovascular events in participants with type 2 diabetes and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease: SURPASS-CVOT design and baseline characteristics.","Nicholls SJ, Bhatt DL, Buse JB, Prato SD, Kahn SE, Lincoff AM, McGuire DK, Nauck MA, Nissen SE, Sattar N, Zinman B, Zoungas S, Basile J, Bartee A, Miller D, Nishiyama H, Pavo I, Weerakkody G, Wiese RJ, D'Alessio D, SURPASS-CVOT investigators","American heart journal","10.1016/j.ahj.2023.09.007",{"id":8780,"title":8781,"authors":8782,"journal":6723,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":8783},2056,"Tirzepatide Reduces Appetite, Energy Intake, and Fat Mass in People With Type 2 Diabetes.","Heise T, DeVries JH, Urva S, Li J, Pratt EJ, Thomas MK, Mather KJ, Karanikas CA, Dunn J, Haupt A, Milicevic Z, Coskun T","10.2337/dc22-1710",{"id":8785,"title":8786,"authors":8787,"journal":6786,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":8788},2057,"Tirzepatide: A Review in Type 2 Diabetes.","France NL, Syed YY","10.1007/s40265-023-01992-4",{"id":8790,"title":8791,"authors":8792,"journal":471,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":8793},2058,"Tirzepatide is an imbalanced and biased dual GIP and GLP-1 receptor agonist.","Willard FS, Douros JD, Gabe MB, Showalter AD, Wainscott DB, Suter TM, Capozzi ME, van der Velden WJ, Stutsman C, Cardona GR, Urva S, Emmerson PJ, Holst JJ, D'Alessio DA, Coghlan MP, Rosenkilde MM, Campbell JE, Sloop KW","10.1172/jci.insight.140532",{"id":8795,"title":8796,"authors":8797,"journal":8798,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":8799},2059,"Tirzepatide, a dual GIP/GLP-1 receptor co-agonist for the treatment of type 2 diabetes with unmatched effectiveness regrading glycaemic control and body weight reduction.","Nauck MA, D'Alessio DA","Cardiovascular diabetology","10.1186/s12933-022-01604-7",{"id":8801,"title":8802,"authors":8803,"journal":6661,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":8804},2060,"Tirzepatide vs Insulin Lispro Added to Basal Insulin in Type 2 Diabetes: The SURPASS-6 Randomized Clinical Trial.","Rosenstock J, Frías JP, Rodbard HW, Tofé S, Sears E, Huh R, Fernández Landó L, Patel H","10.1001/jama.2023.20294",{"id":8806,"title":8807,"authors":8808,"journal":8809,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":8810},2061,"New Drug: Tirzepatide (Mounjaro(™)).","Gettman L","The Senior care pharmacist","10.4140/TCP.n.2023.50",{"id":8812,"title":8813,"authors":8814,"journal":7880,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":8815},2062,"Tirzepatide after intensive lifestyle intervention in adults with overweight or obesity: the SURMOUNT-3 phase 3 trial.","Wadden TA, Chao AM, Machineni S, Kushner R, Ard J, Srivastava G, Halpern B, Zhang S, Chen J, Bunck MC, Ahmad NN, Forrester T","10.1038/s41591-023-02597-w",{"id":8817,"title":8818,"authors":8819,"journal":7864,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":8820},2063,"Tirzepatide versus insulin glargine in type 2 diabetes and increased cardiovascular risk (SURPASS-4): a randomised, open-label, parallel-group, multicentre, phase 3 trial.","Del Prato S, Kahn SE, Pavo I, Weerakkody GJ, Yang Z, Doupis J, Aizenberg D, Wynne AG, Riesmeyer JS, Heine RJ, Wiese RJ, SURPASS-4 Investigators","10.1016/S0140-6736(21)02188-7",{"id":8822,"title":8823,"authors":8824,"journal":7880,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":8825},2064,"Tirzepatide cardiovascular event risk assessment: a pre-specified meta-analysis.","Sattar N, McGuire DK, Pavo I, Weerakkody GJ, Nishiyama H, Wiese RJ, Zoungas S","10.1038/s41591-022-01707-4",{"id":8827,"title":8306,"authors":8307,"journal":8308,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":8309},2065,{"id":8829,"title":8830,"authors":8831,"journal":3183,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":8832},2066,"GIPR agonism mediates weight-independent insulin sensitization by tirzepatide in obese mice.","Samms RJ, Christe ME, Collins KA, Pirro V, Droz BA, Holland AK, Friedrich JL, Wojnicki S, Konkol DL, Cosgrove R, Furber EPC, Ruan X, O'Farrell LS, Long AM, Dogra M, Willency JA, Lin Y, Ding L, Cheng CC, Cabrera O, Briere DA, Alsina-Fernandez J, Gimeno RE, Moyers JS, Coskun T, Coghlan MP, Sloop KW, Roell WC","10.1172/JCI146353",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":8835,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":8836},160,"2026-01-05T22:12:03.702338","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/tirzepatide.webp","4813.45","C225H348N48O68","DB16867","156294675","~5 days","2023788-19-2",[8845,8848,8851,8854,8857,8860],{"name":8846,"dose":8847,"frequency":7055,"route":7056},"Weight loss initiation","2.5mg weekly",{"name":8849,"dose":8850,"frequency":7055,"route":7056},"Weight loss progression","5mg weekly",{"name":8852,"dose":8853,"frequency":7055,"route":7056},"Weight loss optimization","7.5-10mg weekly",{"name":8855,"dose":8856,"frequency":7055,"route":7056},"Maximum weight loss","12.5-15mg weekly",{"name":8858,"dose":8859,"frequency":7055,"route":7056},"Diabetes management (mild)","5-7.5mg weekly",{"name":8861,"dose":8862,"frequency":7055,"route":7056},"Diabetes management (severe)","10-15mg weekly",[8864,8865,8866,8867],"Mounjaro (type 2 diabetes brand)","Zepbound (obesity brand)","GIP/GLP-1 receptor dual agonist","LY3298176",[7078,6824,8869,8870,8871],"Cardiovascular outcomes (investigational)","Metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis (investigational)","Obstructive sleep apnea (investigational)",{"human":8873,"animal":8874,"inVitro":8875,"uncertain":8876},"Tirzepatide is FDA-approved (Mounjaro 2022 for type 2 diabetes; Zepbound November 2023 for obesity). SURMOUNT-1 reported mean weight reductions up to ~20.9% at 72 weeks at the highest dose; SURPASS trials showed superior HbA1c reduction versus placebo and comparators in type 2 diabetes.","Preclinical studies characterize the effects of dual GIP/GLP-1 agonism on body weight, food intake and glycemic control.","Cell-based studies characterize GIP and GLP-1 receptor co-agonism.","Ongoing trials (SURMOUNT-OSA, cardiovascular outcomes SURPASS-CVOT, MASH indications) will clarify broader effects; muscle-mass changes and long-term durability remain areas of active study.",[8878,8881],{"finding":8879,"source":8368,"year":437,"link":8880,"evidenceLevel":46},"SURMOUNT-1: once-weekly tirzepatide (5/10/15 mg) produced mean weight reductions of 15-20.9% at 72 weeks in adults with obesity, versus 3.1% with placebo.","https://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMoa2206038",{"finding":8882,"source":8883,"year":478,"link":8884,"evidenceLevel":46},"FDA approved tirzepatide (Zepbound) for chronic weight management in adults with obesity or overweight plus at least one weight-related comorbidity.","FDA approval (November 2023)","https://www.drugs.com/history/zepbound.html","GI adverse events (nausea, diarrhea, vomiting) are common; long-term cardiovascular outcomes data are awaited; weight regain occurs on discontinuation; cost and access are barriers; rare serious adverse events require continued post-marketing surveillance.","First-in-class dual GIP and GLP-1 receptor agonist; once-weekly subcutaneous injection with an elimination half-life of approximately 5 days (steady state reached in ~4 weeks). A dose-escalation schedule is used to mitigate GI intolerance.",[8888,8891],{"question":8889,"answer":8890},"What is the difference between tirzepatide and semaglutide?","Tirzepatide is a dual GIP/GLP-1 receptor agonist while semaglutide is a GLP-1 agonist; head-to-head trials showed greater HbA1c reduction and weight loss with tirzepatide.",{"question":8892,"answer":8893},"Is tirzepatide approved for weight loss?","Yes — as Zepbound (November 2023) for chronic weight management in adults with obesity, or overweight with at least one weight-related comorbidity.",{"id":5052,"name":8895,"slug":8896,"description":8897,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":15,"views":8,"shortDescription":8898,"researchStatus":8899,"dosage":8900,"mechanism":8901,"safetyNote":8902,"athleteWarning":23,"chemicalMakeup":23,"molecularWeight":23,"molecularFormula":23,"sequence":23,"halfLife":8903,"administrationRoute":4541,"benefits":8904,"peptideBenefits":8918,"sideEffects":8924,"peptideSideEffects":8925,"citations":8926,"protocols":8938,"compatiblePeptides":8951,"research":8956,"statsCache":8957,"imageUrl":8958,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"totalMentions":8,"aliases":8959,"researchAreas":8963,"evidence":8965,"keyStudies":8969,"limitations":8974,"pharmacology":8975,"faqs":8976,"lastReviewed":359},"Bioglutide","bioglutide","Bioglutide (NA-931) is a first-in-class oral quadruple receptor agonist targeting IGF-1, GLP-1, GIP, and glucagon receptors simultaneously. Developed by Biomed Industries, this small molecule derived from a cyclic IGF-1 fragment demonstrates remarkable oral bioavailability and blood-brain barrier penetration. Phase 2 clinical trials showed up to 13.8% body weight reduction in 13 weeks while preserving muscle mass - a significant advantage over existing GLP-1 therapies. Currently in Phase 2b/3 trials for obesity and type 2 diabetes.","Bioglutide (NA-931) is a first-in-class oral quadruple receptor agonist targeting IGF-1, GLP-1, GIP, and glucagon receptors simultaneously.","Investigational drug - not yet FDA approved; Phase 2b/3 trials for obesity and type 2 diabetes","50mg","NA-931 is a small lipophilic molecule derived from cyclic IGF-1 fragment that crosses the blood-brain barrier. Simultaneously activates IGF-1 (muscle preservation, insulin sensitivity), GLP-1 (appetite suppression, insulin secretion), GIP (glucose metabolism, fat storage), and glucagon (energy expenditure, fat oxidation) receptors.","Investigational drug - not yet FDA approved. Start at lower dose (50mg) and titrate up as tolerated. Most common side effects: mild nausea (7.3%), diarrhea (6.3-8.1%). 83% of GI adverse events rated mild or insignificant in trials. No serious drug-related adverse events in Phase 2. Caution with personal/family history of medullary thyroid carcinoma (GLP-1 class concern). Monitor for pancreatitis symptoms (severe abdominal pain). Drug interactions not fully characterized - avoid stacking with other GLP-1 agonists.","16 hrs – 1 day",[8905,8908,8911,8914,8916],{"id":8906,"benefit":8907,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},867,"Oral administration (no injections)",{"id":8909,"benefit":8910,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},868,"muscle-sparing weight loss",{"id":8912,"benefit":8913,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},869,"once-daily dosing with or without food",{"id":1028,"benefit":8915,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},"milder GI side effects than injectable GLP-1s",{"id":1034,"benefit":8917,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},"quadruple receptor activation for comprehensive metabolic effects",[8919,8920,8921,8922,8923],{"id":8906,"benefit":8907,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},{"id":8909,"benefit":8910,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},{"id":8912,"benefit":8913,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},{"id":1028,"benefit":8915,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},{"id":1034,"benefit":8917,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},[],[],[8927,8931,8935],{"id":8928,"title":8929,"authors":155,"journal":8930,"year":458,"citationType":24,"doi":155,"researchPaperId":23},2126,"Phase 2 Clinical Trial - Obesity (2024)","ClinicalTrials.gov",{"id":8932,"title":8933,"authors":155,"journal":8934,"year":458,"citationType":24,"doi":155,"researchPaperId":23},2127,"Phase 1 Trial - Safety and PK (2024)","Biomedical Research",{"id":8936,"title":8937,"authors":155,"journal":8934,"year":23,"citationType":24,"doi":155,"researchPaperId":23},2128,"EASD 2025 Presentation - Phase 2 Results",[8939,8941,8944,8947],{"name":8940,"dose":8900,"frequency":1801,"route":4541},"Starting / Titration",{"name":8942,"dose":8943,"frequency":1801,"route":4541},"Standard dose","100mg",{"name":8945,"dose":8946,"frequency":1801,"route":4541},"Maximum clinical dose","150mg",{"name":8948,"dose":8949,"frequency":1801,"route":8950},"Research titration protocol","Start 2.5mg, increase 2.5mg weekly","Oral (as tolerated)",[8952,8954,8955],{"slug":8616,"status":6006,"note":8953},"Being Studied",{"slug":8050,"status":6108,"note":6109},{"slug":7744,"status":6108,"note":6109},[],{"totalProtocols":2486,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":8,"researchPaperCount":2222,"lastCalculated":23},"/images/peptides/bioglutide.svg",[8960,8961,8962],"NA-931","Bioglutide (research product name)","quadruple receptor agonist NA-931",[6824,7078,8964,7081],"Oral incretin-based therapy",{"human":8966,"animal":8967,"inVitro":23,"uncertain":8968},"NA-931 (marketed to researchers as 'Bioglutide') is an oral quadruple receptor agonist (IGF-1, GLP-1, GIP and glucagon receptors) in Phase 2 development. A 13-week randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study in 125 adults with obesity or overweight plus comorbidity reported dose-dependent mean body-weight reductions of up to 13.8% from baseline (12.4% relative to placebo) at 150 mg daily, with treatment-emergent adverse events described as mild; results were presented at ADA 2025 and EASD 2025.","Company disclosures describe diet-induced obese mouse-model pharmacology supporting the quadruple-agonist weight-loss mechanism; these data were not independently peer-reviewed in the sources examined.","Phase 2 results have so far been communicated through conference abstracts and company press releases, not peer-reviewed full publications; Phase 3 data, long-term safety, and cardiovascular outcomes are lacking.",[8970],{"finding":8971,"source":8972,"year":157,"link":8973,"evidenceLevel":46},"13-week Phase 2 study (n=125): dose-dependent mean weight loss up to 13.8% from baseline (12.4% vs placebo) at 150 mg/day oral, with mostly mild adverse events.","Phase 2 randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial (ADA 2025 abstract 2189-LB)","https://diabetesjournals.org/diabetes/article/74/Supplement_1/2189-LB/160162/2189-LB-Phase-2-Clinical-Trials-of-NA-931-to-Study","No peer-reviewed full publication of the Phase 2 data yet; conference-abstract and press-release evidence only; NA-931 is described by its developer as a small-molecule agonist, whereas the 'Bioglutide' sold as a research peptide is an unregulated product with no clinical or safety data of its own.","Company pharmacokinetic data support once-daily oral dosing, with blood levels unaffected by food intake; the mechanism is simultaneous agonism of IGF-1, GLP-1, GIP and glucagon receptors. Full pharmacokinetic parameters are not yet published in peer-reviewed literature.",[8977,8980],{"question":8978,"answer":8979},"Has Bioglutide (NA-931) completed Phase 3?","No. It is in Phase 2; 13-week Phase 2 results were presented at ADA 2025 and EASD 2025, and peer-reviewed publication is pending.",{"question":8981,"answer":8982},"Is the 'Bioglutide' sold as a research peptide the same as the drug candidate?","No. The retail research product is unregulated and has no safety or efficacy data; only the company's regulated drug candidate (NA-931) has clinical trial results.",{"id":8984,"name":8985,"slug":8986,"description":8987,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":15,"views":8,"shortDescription":8988,"researchStatus":8989,"dosage":8990,"mechanism":8991,"safetyNote":8992,"athleteWarning":23,"chemicalMakeup":23,"molecularWeight":8993,"molecularFormula":23,"sequence":23,"halfLife":8994,"administrationRoute":5863,"benefits":8995,"peptideBenefits":9004,"sideEffects":9009,"peptideSideEffects":9010,"citations":9011,"protocols":9023,"compatiblePeptides":9042,"research":9053,"statsCache":9054,"imageUrl":9055,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"totalMentions":8,"aliases":9056,"researchAreas":9060,"evidence":9061,"keyStudies":9065,"limitations":9077,"pharmacology":9078,"faqs":9079,"lastReviewed":359},81,"Cagrilintide","cagrilintide","Cagrilintide (AM833) is a novel long-acting lipidated amylin analog that acts as a dual amylin and calcitonin receptor agonist. Developed for weight management and type 2 diabetes treatment, it shows superior weight loss potential when combined with semaglutide (CagriSema), with recent Phase 3 trials demonstrating up to 22.7% weight reduction.","Cagrilintide (AM833) is a novel long-acting lipidated amylin analog that acts as a dual amylin and calcitonin receptor agonist.","Investigational - FDA development candidate with Phase 3 data; FDA approval expected Q1 2026","2.4 mg weekly","Subcutaneous injection provides optimal bioavailability of lipidated amylin analog, targeting dual amylin and calcitonin receptors for satiety and metabolic effects","Most common side effects are gastrointestinal (nausea, vomiting, diarrhea) during initial weeks. Anti-cagrilintide antibodies develop in 46-73% of patients but do not affect efficacy. No clinically significant QT prolongation observed in thorough QT studies. Only 57.3% of patients achieved maximum 2.4 mg dose in REDEFINE 1 trial. Formulation must be maintained at acidic pH (3.5-4.5) to prevent fibril formation and deamidation. Reconstituted solutions should be inspected for cloudiness or particles before each use.","4409.01","7.5 days",[8996,8998,9000,9002],{"id":1040,"benefit":8997,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},"FDA development candidate",{"id":1045,"benefit":8999,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},"extensive Phase 3 data",{"id":1052,"benefit":9001,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},"superior weight loss in combination with semaglutide",{"id":1058,"benefit":9003,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},"once-weekly convenience",[9005,9006,9007,9008],{"id":1040,"benefit":8997,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},{"id":1045,"benefit":8999,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},{"id":1052,"benefit":9001,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},{"id":1058,"benefit":9003,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},[],[],[9012,9016,9019],{"id":9013,"title":9014,"authors":155,"journal":9015,"year":157,"citationType":24,"doi":155,"researchPaperId":23},2129,"REDEFINE 1 Trial - Phase 3 Weight Loss (2025)","NEJM",{"id":9017,"title":9018,"authors":155,"journal":9015,"year":157,"citationType":24,"doi":155,"researchPaperId":23},2130,"REDEFINE 2 Trial - Phase 3 Type 2 Diabetes (2025)",{"id":9020,"title":9021,"authors":155,"journal":9022,"year":458,"citationType":24,"doi":155,"researchPaperId":23},2131,"Thorough QT Study - Cardiac Safety (2024)","Wiley Online Library",[9024,9026,9029,9032,9036,9039],{"name":9025,"dose":8990,"frequency":7055,"route":5382},"Weight Loss (Monotherapy)",{"name":9027,"dose":9028,"frequency":7055,"route":5382},"Weight Loss (CagriSema)","2.4 mg + semaglutide 2.4 mg",{"name":9030,"dose":8990,"frequency":7055,"route":9031},"Type 2 Diabetes Management","Subcutaneous injection with metformin",{"name":9033,"dose":9034,"frequency":9035,"route":5382},"Dose Escalation Protocol","0.25 mg → 0.5 mg → 1.0 mg → 1.7 mg → 2.4 mg","Weekly increases over 16 weeks",{"name":9037,"dose":9038,"frequency":7055,"route":5382},"Combination Diabetes Therapy","2.4 mg + SGLT2 inhibitor",{"name":9040,"dose":8990,"frequency":7055,"route":9041},"Cardiovascular Risk Reduction","Subcutaneous injection (REDEFINE 3 trial)",[9043,9044,9046,9048,9050],{"slug":7744,"status":6006,"note":6208},{"slug":9045,"status":6006,"note":6007},"insulin",{"slug":9047,"status":5922,"note":23},"sglt2-inhibitors",{"slug":9049,"status":6108,"note":6109},"pramlintide",{"slug":9051,"status":6006,"note":9052},"oral-contraceptives","Requires Timing",[],{"totalProtocols":2290,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":8,"researchPaperCount":2222,"lastCalculated":23},"/images/peptides/cagrilintide.svg",[9057,9058,9059],"amylin analogue","long-acting amylin receptor agonist","CagriSema (co-administered with semaglutide)",[6824,7078,7081],{"human":9062,"animal":9063,"inVitro":9064,"uncertain":23},"A 2021 phase 2 dose-finding trial (Lancet) showed once-weekly cagrilintide produced dose-dependent weight loss in adults with overweight or obesity. In the phase 3 REDEFINE 1 trial (NEJM 2025), co-administered cagrilintide plus semaglutide (CagriSema) achieved about 22.7% mean weight loss at 68 weeks versus roughly 16.1% with semaglutide alone; REDEFINE 2 reported similar benefits in people with type 2 diabetes. As of mid-2026 cagrilintide was not yet FDA-approved.","Preclinical studies show cagrilintide reduces food intake and body weight in rodent models of obesity. A 2025 Lancet eBioMedicine study showed its weight-lowering effects are mediated through brain amylin receptors 1 and 3.","Receptor pharmacology studies characterize cagrilintide as a potent, long-acting agonist at amylin receptors (calcitonin-receptor-based AMY1-3), with a prolonged receptor-binding profile.",[9066,9070,9074],{"finding":9067,"source":9068,"year":465,"link":9069,"evidenceLevel":46},"Once-weekly cagrilintide produced dose-dependent weight loss over 26 weeks in adults with overweight/obesity in a placebo- and active-controlled dose-finding phase 2 trial.","Phase 2 randomized, double-blind, dose-finding trial (Lancet)","https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(21)01751-7",{"finding":9071,"source":9072,"year":157,"link":9073,"evidenceLevel":46},"CagriSema (cagrilintide + semaglutide) achieved approximately 22.7% mean weight loss at 68 weeks, superior to semaglutide monotherapy, in adults with overweight or obesity.","Phase 3 REDEFINE 1 trial (NEJM)","https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2502081",{"finding":9075,"source":9076,"year":157,"link":23,"evidenceLevel":50},"Cagrilintide lowers bodyweight through brain amylin receptors 1 and 3 in preclinical models.","preclinical study (Lancet eBioMedicine)","The phase 2 program was dose-finding and not powered for long-term efficacy or safety. REDEFINE 1 missed its pre-specified ~25% weight-loss expectation. Gastrointestinal side effects (nausea, vomiting, diarrhea) are common. Long-term cardiovascular outcomes have not yet been reported, and regulatory approval was still pending as of mid-2026.","Once-weekly subcutaneous dosing supported by a long plasma half-life (approximately 168-192 hours, 7-8 days). Mechanism: amylin receptor agonism (brain AMY1/AMY3) that reduces food intake, with additive weight loss when combined with semaglutide (CagriSema).",[9080,9083,9086],{"question":9081,"answer":9082},"Is cagrilintide FDA-approved?","Not as of mid-2026. It has completed phase 2 and phase 3 trials (including CagriSema combination studies) and regulatory review was ongoing.",{"question":9084,"answer":9085},"What is CagriSema?","CagriSema is the co-administration of cagrilintide (a long-acting amylin analogue) and semaglutide (a GLP-1 receptor agonist), studied in the phase 3 REDEFINE program for obesity and type 2 diabetes.",{"question":9087,"answer":9088},"How does cagrilintide differ from GLP-1 drugs?","It targets the amylin pathway rather than GLP-1. Amylin receptor agonism reduces appetite and slows gastric emptying through a distinct mechanism, which is why the combination with a GLP-1 agonist produces additive weight loss.",{"id":4660,"name":9090,"slug":9091,"description":9092,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":15,"views":8,"shortDescription":9093,"researchStatus":9094,"dosage":9095,"mechanism":9096,"safetyNote":9097,"athleteWarning":23,"chemicalMakeup":23,"molecularWeight":23,"molecularFormula":23,"sequence":23,"halfLife":9098,"administrationRoute":4541,"benefits":9099,"peptideBenefits":9118,"sideEffects":9125,"peptideSideEffects":9126,"citations":9127,"protocols":9137,"compatiblePeptides":9158,"research":9163,"statsCache":9164,"imageUrl":9165,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"totalMentions":8,"aliases":9166,"researchAreas":9169,"evidence":9172,"keyStudies":9177,"limitations":9190,"pharmacology":9191,"faqs":9192,"lastReviewed":359},"Orforglipron","orforglipron","Orforglipron (LY-3502970) is an oral, non-peptide GLP-1 receptor agonist - the first small-molecule GLP-1 to complete Phase 3 trials. Unlike injectable GLP-1s, it requires no injections, refrigeration, or food/water restrictions. Clinical trials show substantial weight loss (up to 12.4% at 72 weeks) and robust glycemic control (HbA1c reductions of 1.3-1.6%). Developed by Chugai Pharmaceutical and licensed to Eli Lilly, FDA approval expected 2026.","Orforglipron (LY-3502970) is an oral, non-peptide GLP-1 receptor agonist - the first small-molecule GLP-1 to complete Phase 3 trials.","Investigational - not yet FDA-approved; FDA approval expected 2026","3mg daily","Small-molecule GLP-1 receptor agonist with biased signaling - preferentially activates G protein/cAMP pathways (enhancing insulin secretion, suppressing glucagon, delaying gastric emptying, reducing appetite) while minimizing receptor desensitization. 79.1% oral bioavailability with 29-49 hour half-life supporting once-daily dosing.","Start with lowest effective dose and escalate gradually every 4 weeks to minimize GI side effects. Likely contraindicated with personal/family history of medullary thyroid carcinoma or Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia syndrome type 2 (MEN2) - pending final FDA labeling. Monitor for signs of acute pancreatitis (severe, persistent abdominal pain radiating to back) - discontinue if suspected. Diarrhea is most common side effect (more prevalent than with injectable GLP-1s) - stay well hydrated. Requires prescription and medical supervision - investigational until late 2025/2026 regulatory approval. Store at room temperature (15-30°C) - no refrigeration required unlike peptide GLP-1 agonists. May require adjustment of other diabetes medications (especially insulin or sulfonylureas) to prevent hypoglycemia. Not safe for use during pregnancy or breastfeeding - adequate contraception recommended during therapy. Gallbladder disease risk increased with rapid weight loss - monitor for symptoms. Discontinuation rates 5-10% due to adverse events, primarily GI-related during dose escalation.","1.2 days – 2.0 days",[9100,9103,9106,9109,9112,9115],{"id":9101,"benefit":9102,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":15},918,"Significant weight loss (up to 12.4% at 72 weeks)",{"id":9104,"benefit":9105,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":15},919,"robust diabetes control (HbA1c reduction 1.3-1.6%)",{"id":9107,"benefit":9108,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":15},920,"once-daily oral tablet",{"id":9110,"benefit":9111,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":15},921,"no refrigeration or food restrictions",{"id":9113,"benefit":9114,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":15},922,"reduced cardiovascular risk markers",{"id":9116,"benefit":9117,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":15},923,"preserved muscle mass during weight loss",[9119,9120,9121,9122,9123,9124],{"id":9101,"benefit":9102,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":15},{"id":9104,"benefit":9105,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":15},{"id":9107,"benefit":9108,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":15},{"id":9110,"benefit":9111,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":15},{"id":9113,"benefit":9114,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":15},{"id":9116,"benefit":9117,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":15},[],[],[9128,9131,9134],{"id":9129,"title":9130,"authors":155,"journal":23,"year":157,"citationType":24,"doi":155,"researchPaperId":23},2162,"ATTAIN-1 Phase 3 Trial (Obesity) - 2025",{"id":9132,"title":9133,"authors":155,"journal":23,"year":157,"citationType":24,"doi":155,"researchPaperId":23},2163,"ATTAIN-2 Phase 3 Trial (Obesity + T2DM) - 2025",{"id":9135,"title":9136,"authors":155,"journal":23,"year":157,"citationType":24,"doi":155,"researchPaperId":23},2164,"ACHIEVE-1 Phase 3 Trial (Type 2 Diabetes) - 2025",[9138,9142,9145,9148,9151,9153,9155],{"name":9139,"dose":9095,"frequency":9140,"route":9141},"Type 2 diabetes initiation","Once daily, any time","Oral tablet",{"name":9143,"dose":9144,"frequency":9140,"route":9141},"Type 2 diabetes moderate control","12mg daily",{"name":9146,"dose":9147,"frequency":9140,"route":9141},"Type 2 diabetes optimal control","36mg daily",{"name":9149,"dose":9150,"frequency":9140,"route":9141},"Weight loss initiation (obesity without diabetes)","6mg daily",{"name":9152,"dose":9144,"frequency":9140,"route":9141},"Weight loss progression (obesity without diabetes)",{"name":9154,"dose":9147,"frequency":9140,"route":9141},"Weight loss optimization (obesity without diabetes)",{"name":9156,"dose":9157,"frequency":9140,"route":9141},"Weight loss with type 2 diabetes","6-36mg daily (titrate based on response)",[9159,9160,9161,9162],{"slug":8050,"status":6108,"note":6109},{"slug":8616,"status":6108,"note":6109},{"slug":6598,"status":6108,"note":6109},{"slug":9045,"status":6006,"note":6007},[],{"totalProtocols":294,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":8,"researchPaperCount":2222,"lastCalculated":23},"/images/peptides/orforglipron.svg",[9090,9167,9168],"LY-3502970","Oral nonpeptide GLP-1 receptor agonist",[9170,7078,9171],"Obesity / weight management","Oral GLP-1 receptor agonists",{"human":9173,"animal":9174,"inVitro":9175,"uncertain":9176},"Phase 2 trials: once-daily oral orforglipron produced dose-dependent weight loss — up to ~14.7% mean reduction at 36 weeks in adults with obesity (NEJM 2023) — and substantial HbA1c reductions in type 2 diabetes (Lancet 2023). Phase 3 ATTAIN-1 (2025) reported sustained weight loss (~12.4% average at 72 weeks), and an NDA has been submitted to the FDA.","Preclinical studies in rodent models of obesity/diabetes confirmed weight loss and glycemic effects with the small-molecule GLP-1 agonist.","Orforglipron is a potent full agonist of the human GLP-1 receptor in cell-based assays, comparable to peptide GLP-1 receptor agonists.","Gastrointestinal side effects (nausea, vomiting, diarrhea) are common; ALT elevations were observed in some trials and long-term cardiovascular and liver safety are still being characterized.",[9178,9182,9186],{"finding":9179,"source":9180,"year":478,"link":9181,"evidenceLevel":46},"In a phase 2 randomized trial, oral orforglipron produced up to ~14.7% mean weight loss at 36 weeks in adults with obesity or overweight.","Phase 2 randomized dose-ranging trial (NEJM)","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37351564/",{"finding":9183,"source":9184,"year":478,"link":9185,"evidenceLevel":46},"A phase 2 dose-response study in type 2 diabetes showed HbA1c reductions up to ~2.1% at 26 weeks with once-daily orforglipron.","Phase 2 randomized dose-response trial (Lancet)","https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0140673623013028",{"finding":9187,"source":9188,"year":157,"link":9189,"evidenceLevel":46},"Phase 3 ATTAIN-1 results showed sustained weight loss (average ~12.4% at 72 weeks; up to ~27.3 lb in a first pivotal trial), supporting an FDA NDA submission.","Phase 3 trial (company announcement)","https://www.drugs.com/clinical_trials/lilly-s-oral-glp-1-orforglipron-delivers-weight-loss-up-average-27-3-lbs-first-two-pivotal-phase-3-22132.html","Orforglipron is investigational and not yet FDA-approved at review date. Long-term safety (GI tolerability, liver-enzyme signals, cardiovascular outcomes) is still being assessed, and full phase 3 publications are pending peer review.","Once-daily oral small-molecule full agonist of the GLP-1 receptor (no peptide, no refrigeration, no food/water restrictions per phase 1 data); trial doses ranged roughly from 1–45 mg once daily. Gastrointestinal tolerability is the main dose-limiting factor.",[9193,9196,9199],{"question":9194,"answer":9195},"Is orforglipron approved?","Not yet. An FDA NDA was submitted in 2025 based on phase 3 data; approval decisions were pending at review date.",{"question":9197,"answer":9198},"How does orforglipron differ from semaglutide?","It is a small-molecule (non-peptide) oral GLP-1 receptor agonist, so it is taken as a daily pill without injections or food restrictions.",{"question":9200,"answer":9201},"What are the main side effects?","Gastrointestinal events (nausea, vomiting, diarrhea) are most common; some ALT elevations were seen in trials and are being monitored.",{"id":5492,"name":9203,"slug":9204,"description":9205,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":15,"views":8,"shortDescription":9206,"researchStatus":9207,"dosage":9208,"mechanism":9209,"safetyNote":9210,"athleteWarning":23,"chemicalMakeup":23,"molecularWeight":23,"molecularFormula":23,"sequence":23,"halfLife":9211,"administrationRoute":4541,"benefits":9212,"peptideBenefits":9225,"sideEffects":9230,"peptideSideEffects":9231,"citations":9232,"protocols":9243,"compatiblePeptides":9253,"research":9270,"statsCache":9271,"imageUrl":9272,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"totalMentions":8,"aliases":9273,"researchAreas":9276,"evidence":9279,"keyStudies":9284,"limitations":9293,"pharmacology":9294,"faqs":9295,"lastReviewed":359},"Tesofensine","tesofensine","Tesofensine (NS2330) is a triple monoamine reuptake inhibitor that blocks the reuptake of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin. Originally developed for Parkinson's and Alzheimer's disease, it demonstrated significant weight loss effects in early trials, leading to its development as an anti-obesity agent. Phase 2 and 3 clinical trials have shown weight loss of 10-12% over 24 weeks, making it one of the more effective investigational weight loss compounds. It works primarily by suppressing appetite and increasing energy expenditure through central nervous system mechanisms.","Tesofensine (NS2330) is a triple monoamine reuptake inhibitor that blocks the reuptake of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin.","Investigational - not FDA approved for obesity treatment in the US","0.5mg","Tesofensine is a triple monoamine reuptake inhibitor that blocks reuptake of dopamine (IC50: 6.5nM), norepinephrine (IC50: 1.7nM), and serotonin (IC50: 11nM). This increases neurotransmitter levels in the hypothalamus and other brain regions controlling appetite and satiety. Recent research shows it silences GABAergic neurons in the lateral hypothalamus that normally promote feeding behavior.","NOT FDA approved - investigational compound only. May increase heart rate by 5-8 bpm (dose-dependent). Can modestly increase blood pressure (1-3 mmHg typical). Contraindicated with MAOIs, SSRIs, SNRIs, and stimulants. Not recommended for those with cardiovascular disease or uncontrolled hypertension. May cause insomnia - take in the morning only. Psychiatric effects possible - avoid with depression/anxiety history. Long half-life means side effects persist if they occur. Regular cardiovascular monitoring recommended.","9.2 days",[9213,9216,9219,9222],{"id":9214,"benefit":9215,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},927,"Potent appetite suppression with significant weight loss (9-12% over 24 weeks)",{"id":9217,"benefit":9218,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},928,"Once-daily oral dosing with long half-life (~9 days)",{"id":9220,"benefit":9221,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},929,"May also increase resting energy expenditure",{"id":9223,"benefit":9224,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},930,"Different mechanism than GLP-1 agonists offers alternative approach",[9226,9227,9228,9229],{"id":9214,"benefit":9215,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},{"id":9217,"benefit":9218,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},{"id":9220,"benefit":9221,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},{"id":9223,"benefit":9224,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},[],[],[9233,9236,9239],{"id":9234,"title":9235,"authors":155,"journal":5900,"year":229,"citationType":24,"doi":155,"researchPaperId":23},2168,"TIPO-1 Phase IIB Trial (2008)",{"id":9237,"title":9238,"authors":155,"journal":23,"year":23,"citationType":24,"doi":155,"researchPaperId":23},2169,"TIPO-4 Extension Trial (48 weeks)",{"id":9240,"title":9241,"authors":155,"journal":9242,"year":491,"citationType":24,"doi":155,"researchPaperId":23},2170,"Viking Phase 3 Trial (2018)","GlobeNewswire",[9244,9247,9249],{"name":9245,"dose":9208,"frequency":9246,"route":4541},"Standard Weight Loss","Once daily in the morning",{"name":9248,"dose":8335,"frequency":9246,"route":4541},"Conservative/Starting Dose",{"name":9250,"dose":9251,"frequency":9252,"route":4541},"Maximum Studied Dose","1.0mg","Once daily (higher side effect rate)",[9254,9256,9258,9260,9262,9265,9268],{"slug":9255,"status":6108,"note":6109},"ssris",{"slug":9257,"status":6108,"note":6109},"snris",{"slug":9259,"status":6108,"note":6109},"stimulants",{"slug":9261,"status":6108,"note":6109},"bupropion",{"slug":9263,"status":6006,"note":9264},"semaglutide-tirzepatide","Insufficient Data",{"slug":9266,"status":5922,"note":9267},"beta-blockers","Potentially Beneficial",{"slug":9269,"status":6006,"note":6208},"caffeine",[],{"totalProtocols":2222,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":8,"researchPaperCount":2222,"lastCalculated":23},"/images/peptides/tesofensine.svg",[9203,9274,9275],"NS2330","Tesofensine citrate",[9170,9277,9278],"Triple monoamine reuptake inhibition","Appetite suppression / energy expenditure",{"human":9280,"animal":9281,"inVitro":9282,"uncertain":9283},"A 6-month randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 2 trial (Astrup et al., Lancet 2008) reported dose-dependent weight loss of up to ~10% of body weight with tesofensine 0.5 mg/day. That publication carries a 2013 Expression of Concern from The Lancet over trial irregularities. Phase 3 development stalled when the original sponsor ran into difficulties, and the drug is not approved anywhere.","Animal studies show tesofensine reduces food intake and increases energy expenditure/thermogenesis, consistent with triple monoamine reuptake inhibition.","Cell-based assays confirm potent inhibition of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin transporters.","Cardiovascular signals (heart-rate and blood-pressure increases) and the reliability of the pivotal weight-loss data are major open questions; off-label/gray-market use is unregulated.",[9285,9289],{"finding":9286,"source":9287,"year":229,"link":9288,"evidenceLevel":46},"A phase 2 RCT reported dose-dependent weight loss (up to ~10% body weight at 0.5 mg/day over 24 weeks) in obese patients; the paper later received an Expression of Concern over trial irregularities.","Phase 2 randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial (Lancet 2008; Expression of Concern 2013)","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18950853/",{"finding":9290,"source":9291,"year":260,"link":9292,"evidenceLevel":46},"The Lancet issued an Expression of Concern about the 2008 tesofensine trial due to irregularities in trial conduct.","Expression of Concern (The Lancet)","https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0140673613607783","The pivotal phase 2 weight-loss data are formally disputed (Lancet Expression of Concern 2013). Phase 3 development stalled and no product is approved; safety signals (heart rate, blood pressure) and widespread unregulated use are significant caveats.","Triple monoamine (dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin) reuptake inhibitor with a long elimination half-life supporting once-daily oral dosing; reduces appetite and increases energy expenditure. Originally developed as NS2330 for Parkinson's and Alzheimer's disease, where it failed to show benefit.",[9296,9299,9302],{"question":9297,"answer":9298},"Is tesofensine approved for weight loss?","No. It is not approved anywhere; phase 3 development stalled and the main phase 2 paper carries a Lancet Expression of Concern.",{"question":9300,"answer":9301},"How much weight loss did tesofensine trials show?","The 2008 phase 2 trial reported up to ~10% body-weight loss at 0.5 mg/day over 24 weeks, but the reliability of those data is disputed.",{"question":9303,"answer":9304},"Why was tesofensine originally developed?","As NS2330 it was tested for Parkinson's and Alzheimer's disease before its weight-loss effect redirected development toward obesity.","https://cbzugwmbrmdvvkvtjpnn.supabase.co/storage/v1/object/public/peptide_category_icons/weight_management.png",{"id":365,"slug":9307,"title":9308,"display_order":8,"peptides":9309,"icon":13420},"muscle-growth-recovery","Muscle Growth & Recovery",[9310,9517,9937,10205,10442,10819,11144,11410,11790,12071,12450,12707,13064,13340],{"id":1683,"name":9311,"slug":9312,"description":9313,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":28,"views":9314,"shortDescription":9315,"researchStatus":9316,"peptideBenefits":9317,"benefits":9321,"sideEffects":9323,"peptideSideEffects":9324,"mechanism":9325,"safetyNote":9326,"citations":9327,"research":9478,"statsCache":9479,"imageUrl":9481,"sequence":9482,"halfLife":9483,"totalMentions":5369,"dataCompleteness":9484,"hasResearchData":28,"aliases":9485,"researchAreas":9490,"evidence":9495,"keyStudies":9500,"limitations":9508,"pharmacology":9509,"faqs":9510,"lastReviewed":359},"ACE-031","ace-031","ACE-031 is an experimental drug designed to increase muscle mass by blocking myostatin — the protein that naturally limits how big your muscles can grow. **How it works:** Your body produces myostatin to prevent muscles from growing too large. ACE-031 acts as a \"decoy receptor\" that intercepts myostatin before it can reach muscle tissue, essentially removing the brakes on muscle growth. **What the research shows:** • Developed initially for muscular dystrophy patients to combat muscle wasting • Clinical trials showed significant increases in lean muscle mass • Also increased bone mineral density in studies • Development was halted due to safety concerns (minor nosebleeds and gum bleeding) **The science behind it:** ACE-031 is a fusion protein combining part of the activin receptor (ActRIIB) with an antibody fragment. This allows it to circulate in the bloodstream and bind to myostatin and related proteins (like activin A and GDF-11) that suppress muscle growth. **Important to know:** Clinical development was discontinued by Acceleron Pharma in 2013 after Phase 2 trials due to safety signals. The compound remains investigational and is not approved for any use. --- **Sources:** Attie KM, et al. (2013) Neuromuscular Disorders. DOI:10.1016/j.nmd.2013.02.015 | Campbell C, et al. (2017) Muscle & Nerve. DOI:10.1002/mus.25268",67,"Myostatin inhibitor","Clinical Trials",[9318],{"id":240,"benefit":9319,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":9320,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},"Muscle Mass: 3.3% lean mass increase, study terminated","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27462804/",[9322],{"id":240,"benefit":9319,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":9320,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},[],[],"Binds to myostatin and other TGF-β family ligands, preventing their inhibitory effects on muscle growth.","No significant safety concerns identified. Standard precautions apply.",[9328,9332,9336,9338,9342,9346,9350,9353,9358,9362,9367,9371,9376,9380,9384,9388,9393,9398,9404,9410,9415,9421,9427,9432,9438,9443,9448,9453,9457,9461,9467,9472],{"id":6033,"title":9329,"authors":9330,"journal":3452,"year":157,"citationType":44,"doi":9331},"Gel Electrophoretic Detection of Black Market ACE-031.","Christian Reichel, Thomas Filip, Günter Gmeiner, Mario Thevis","10.1002/dta.3898",{"id":114,"title":9333,"authors":9334,"journal":1990,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":9335},"The relationship between myodural bridges, hyperplasia of the suboccipital musculature, and intracranial pressure.","Li C, Yue C, Liu ZC, Gong J, Wei XS, Yang H, Gilmore C, Yu SB, Hack GD, Sui HJ","10.1371/journal.pone.0273193",{"id":1268,"title":6425,"authors":9337,"journal":6427,"year":1105,"citationType":167},"Tomillero A, Moral MA",{"id":1271,"title":9339,"authors":9340,"journal":1006,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":9341},"The relationship between myodural bridge, atrophy and hyperplasia of the suboccipital musculature, and cerebrospinal fluid dynamics.","Yang H, Wei XS, Gong J, Du XM, Feng HB, Su C, Gilmore C, Yue C, Yu SB, Li C, Sui HJ","10.1038/s41598-023-45820-x",{"id":1274,"title":9343,"authors":9344,"journal":2189,"year":1105,"citationType":167,"doi":9345},"Administration of a soluble activin type IIB receptor promotes skeletal muscle growth independent of fiber type.","Cadena SM, Tomkinson KN, Monnell TE, Spaits MS, Kumar R, Underwood KW, Pearsall RS, Lachey JL","10.1152/japplphysiol.00866.2009",{"id":1276,"title":9347,"authors":9348,"journal":9349,"year":1122,"citationType":167},"[Myostatin blockade therapy for muscular atrophy].","Sunada Y","Brain and nerve = Shinkei kenkyu no shinpo",{"id":1279,"title":9351,"authors":6418,"journal":7668,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":9352},"Emerging drugs affecting skeletal muscle function and mitochondrial biogenesis - Potential implications for sports drug testing programs.","10.1002/rcm.7470",{"id":3734,"title":9354,"authors":9355,"journal":9356,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":9357},"Mortality and Morbidity Among Individuals With Hypertension Receiving a Diuretic, ACE Inhibitor, or Calcium Channel Blocker: A Secondary Analysis of a Randomized Clinical Trial.","Yamal JM, Martinez J, Osani MC, Du XL, Simpson LM, Davis BR","JAMA network open","10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.44998",{"id":3736,"title":9359,"authors":9360,"journal":1990,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":9361},"Adverse cardiovascular events and cardiac imaging findings in patients on immune checkpoint inhibitors.","Kwan JM, Shen M, Akhlaghi N, Hu JR, Mora R, Cross JL, Jiang M, Mankbadi M, Wang P, Zaman S, Lee S, Im Y, Feher A, Liu YH, Ma SS, Tao W, Wei W, Baldassarre LA","10.1371/journal.pone.0314555",{"id":3738,"title":9363,"authors":9364,"journal":9365,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":9366},"Serum transthyretin level and its relationship with cognitive function in community-dwelling older people: Cross sectional and longitudinal study.","Nakamura M, Imaoka M, Tazaki F, Hida M, Imai R, Kubo T, Sakai K, Takeda M","Archives of gerontology and geriatrics","10.1016/j.archger.2023.105226",{"id":3740,"title":9368,"authors":9369,"journal":1990,"year":260,"citationType":167,"doi":9370},"The association of sport performance with ACE and ACTN3 genetic polymorphisms: a systematic review and meta-analysis.","Ma F, Yang Y, Li X, Zhou F, Gao C, Li M, Gao L","10.1371/journal.pone.0054685",{"id":5102,"title":9372,"authors":9373,"journal":9374,"year":849,"citationType":167,"doi":9375},"The safety profile of quinapril: is there a difference among ACE inhibitors?","Canter D, Frank GJ, Knapp LE, McLain RW","Clinical cardiology","10.1002/clc.4960131408",{"id":5095,"title":9377,"authors":9378,"journal":1006,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":9379},"ACE inhibitory casein peptide lowers blood pressure and reshapes gut microbiota in a randomized double blind placebo controlled trial.","Li K, Jiang P, Li S, Sun J, Qi C","10.1038/s41598-025-98446-6",{"id":5104,"title":9381,"authors":9382,"journal":7291,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":9383},"Association between the composite dietary antioxidant index and cardiovascular-kidney-metabolic syndrome among U.S. adults: evidence from NHANES 2007-2018.","He Q, Hu F, Wei W, Li J, Yu Y, Zhang H","10.3389/fnut.2025.1600651",{"id":5097,"title":9385,"authors":9386,"journal":1006,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":9387},"Integration of multi-omics quantitative trait loci evidence reveals novel susceptibility genes for Alzheimer's disease.","Gao J, Bi X, Jiang W, Wang Y","10.1038/s41598-025-12290-2",{"id":5107,"title":9389,"authors":9390,"journal":9391,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":9392},"Angiotensin Converting Enzyme (ACE) Gene I/D Polymorphism Is Significantly Associated with Insulin Resistance and Polycystic Ovary Syndrome: A Meta-Analysis.","Li J, Lin Z, Wang S, Shi Q","Gynecologic and obstetric investigation","10.1159/000530089",{"id":5099,"title":9394,"authors":9395,"journal":9396,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":9397},"Effect of prophylactic betablocker or ACE inhibitor on cardiac dysfunction & heart failure during anthracycline chemotherapy ± trastuzumab.","Gujral DM, Lloyd G, Bhattacharyya S","Breast (Edinburgh, Scotland)","10.1016/j.breast.2017.10.010",{"id":9399,"title":9400,"authors":9401,"journal":9402,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":9403},129,"[Arterial hypertension after heart transplantation].","Simonenko MA, Fedotov PA, Sazonova YV, Bortsova MA, Sitnikova MY, Karpenko MA, Belyaeva NN, Nikolaev GV, Gordeev ML","Kardiologiia","10.18087/cardio.2020.6.n880",{"id":9405,"title":9406,"authors":9407,"journal":9408,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":9409},130,"Cardiotoxicity of Chemotherapy: A Multi-OMIC Perspective.","Ma Y, Grootaert MOJ, Sewduth RN","Journal of xenobiotics","10.3390/jox15010009",{"id":9411,"title":9412,"authors":9413,"journal":1990,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":9414},131,"ACE gene polymorphism and susceptibility to hypertension in a Jordanian adult population.","Al-Eitan L, Al-Khaldi S, Ibdah RK","10.1371/journal.pone.0304271",{"id":9416,"title":9417,"authors":9418,"journal":9419,"year":1152,"citationType":167,"doi":9420},132,"ACE deletion polymorphism is associated with a high risk of non-infectious pulmonary complications after stem cell transplantation.","Miyamoto M, Onizuka M, Machida S, Toyosaki M, Amaki J, Aoyama Y, Kawai H, Sato A, Hayama N, Ogawa Y, Kawada H, Ando K","International journal of hematology","10.1007/s12185-013-1494-6",{"id":9422,"title":9423,"authors":9424,"journal":9425,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":9426},133,"Maternal adverse childhood experiences impact fetal adrenal volume in a sex-specific manner.","Duffy KA, Sammel MD, Johnson RL, Kim DR, Wang EY, Ewing G, Hantsoo L, Kornfield SL, Bale TL, Epperson CN","Biology of sex differences","10.1186/s13293-023-00492-0",{"id":9428,"title":9429,"authors":9430,"journal":2189,"year":290,"citationType":167,"doi":9431},134,"ACE ID genotype affects blood creatine kinase response to eccentric exercise.","Yamin C, Amir O, Sagiv M, Attias E, Meckel Y, Eynon N, Sagiv M, Amir RE","10.1152/japplphysiol.00867.2007",{"id":9433,"title":9434,"authors":9435,"journal":9436,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":9437},135,"Behavioural effects of the ACE insertion/deletion polymorphism in Alzheimer's disease depend upon stratification according to APOE-ϵ4 carrier status.","Oliveira FF, de Almeida SS, Smith MC, Bertolucci PHF","Cognitive neuropsychiatry","10.1080/13546805.2021.1931085",{"id":9439,"title":9440,"authors":9441,"journal":7201,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":9442},136,"Exercise Induced-Cytokines Response in Marathon Runners: Role of ACE I/D and BDKRB2 +9/-9 Polymorphisms.","Sierra APR, Martínez Galán BS, de Sousa CAZ, de Menezes DC, Branquinho JLO, Neves RL, Arata JG, Bittencourt CA, Barbeiro HV, de Souza HP, Pesquero JB, Cury-Boaventura MF","10.3389/fphys.2022.919544",{"id":9444,"title":9445,"authors":9446,"journal":3889,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":9447},109,"ACE-031, a Soluble Activin Type IIB Receptor, Increases Muscle Mass and Strength in the Common Marmoset (Callithrix jacchus).","Cadena SM, Bogdanovich S, Khurana TS, Pullen A, Pearsall RS, Curran E, Faucette R, Lane J, Seehra J, Lachey JL, Mizener AD, Pistilli EE","pii: 2025.10.01.679778. 10.1101/2025.10.01.679778",{"id":102,"title":9449,"authors":9450,"journal":9451,"year":260,"citationType":167,"doi":9452},"A single ascending-dose study of muscle regulator ACE-031 in healthy volunteers.","Attie KM, Borgstein NG, Yang Y, Condon CH, Wilson DM, Pearsall AE, Kumar R, Willins DA, Seehra JS, Sherman ML","Muscle & nerve","10.1002/mus.23539",{"id":108,"title":9454,"authors":9455,"journal":9451,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":9456},"Myostatin inhibitor ACE-031 treatment of ambulatory boys with Duchenne muscular dystrophy: Results of a randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial.","Campbell C, McMillan HJ, Mah JK, Tarnopolsky M, Selby K, McClure T, Wilson DM, Sherman ML, Escolar D, Attie KM","10.1002/mus.25268",{"id":111,"title":9458,"authors":9348,"journal":9459,"year":1122,"citationType":167,"doi":9460},"[Anti-myostatin antibody therapy for myopathies].","Rinsho shinkeigaku = Clinical neurology","10.5692/clinicalneurol.51.1157",{"id":9462,"title":9463,"authors":9464,"journal":9465,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":9466},137,"The relationship between self-reported adverse experiences and depressive symptoms among middle-aged and elderly individuals: A longitudinal study based on the CHARLS database.","Jiang F, Guan X, Zhu Z, Liu N, Gu H, Li X","Brain, behavior, & immunity - health","10.1016/j.bbih.2025.101001",{"id":9468,"title":9469,"authors":9470,"journal":6972,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":9471},138,"Metabolic impact of weight loss induced reduction of adipose ACE-2 - Potential implication in COVID-19 infections?","Li L, Spranger L, Soll D, Beer F, Brachs M, Spranger J, Mai K","10.1016/j.metabol.2020.154401",{"id":9473,"title":9474,"authors":9475,"journal":9476,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":9477},139,"Angiotensin-converting enzyme insertion/deletion gene polymorphism in patients with laryngeal cancer.","Kumbul YÇ, Hekimler Öztürk K, Yasan H, Akın V, Sivrice ME, Caner F","Acta otorhinolaryngologica Italica : organo ufficiale della Societa italiana di otorinolaringologia e chirurgia cervico-facciale","10.14639/0392-100X-N2127",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":5369,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":9480},"2026-01-05T22:12:06.493828","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/ace-031.avif","QDGPIPP","10-15 days",70,[9486,9487,9488,9489],"ACE-031 (development code)","ACVR2B-Fc","ActRIIB-Fc fusion protein","soluble activin receptor type IIB",[9491,9492,9493,9494],"Muscle mass and lean body composition","Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD)","Myostatin/activin signaling blockade","Muscle-wasting disorders",{"human":9496,"animal":9497,"inVitro":9498,"uncertain":9499},"In a single ascending-dose study in healthy volunteers, ACE-031 (a soluble activin receptor type IIB-Fc fusion protein that neutralizes myostatin and related ligands) produced dose-dependent increases in lean body mass and decreases in fat mass. A randomized, placebo-controlled trial in ambulatory boys with Duchenne muscular dystrophy showed increased lean mass, but epistaxis (nosebleeds) and telangiectasias led to dose reduction and discontinuation of the program.","ActRIIB ligand-trap constructs increased skeletal muscle mass in rodent models, supporting the myostatin-blockade concept for muscle wasting; the ACE-031 clinical program itself was discontinued after the Phase 2 safety findings.","ACE-031 binds myostatin, activin A and GDF-11 with high affinity, preventing their signaling through activin type II receptors (in-vitro binding assays).","Functional benefit (strength, ambulation) in DMD was not established, and no drug in this class is approved for muscle wasting; claims about use for bodybuilding/performance are entirely unproven.",[9501,9505],{"finding":9502,"source":9503,"year":260,"link":9504,"evidenceLevel":46},"Single ascending doses in healthy volunteers increased lean body mass and reduced fat mass in a dose-dependent manner; dose-related nosebleeds (epistaxis) and telangiectasias occurred.","Phase 1 single ascending-dose study (Muscle & Nerve)","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23169607/",{"finding":9506,"source":9507,"year":498,"link":9320,"evidenceLevel":46},"Randomized, placebo-controlled trial in ambulatory boys with DMD increased lean mass but was associated with epistaxis and telangiectasias; doses were reduced and development was later discontinued.","Randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial (Muscle & Nerve)","Clinical development was halted after Phase 2 largely because of bleeding-related adverse events (epistaxis, telangiectasias); there are no long-term data on functional outcomes in DMD or other muscle-wasting conditions, and no approved indication.","ACE-031 is a recombinant fusion protein of the extracellular domain of human activin receptor type IIB fused to an IgG1 Fc region; it sequesters myostatin, activin A and GDF-11, blocking catabolic TGF-beta-family signaling in muscle. It was administered by subcutaneous injection in trials; beyond trial reports, no clinical pharmacokinetic data are published.",[9511,9514],{"question":9512,"answer":9513},"Is ACE-031 approved for any use?","No. Its clinical development was discontinued after Phase 2 trials due to nosebleeds and telangiectasias; it has no approved indication.",{"question":9515,"answer":9516},"How does ACE-031 increase muscle mass?","It acts as a soluble 'trap' for myostatin, activin A and GDF-11, preventing these ligands from inhibiting muscle growth through activin type II receptors.",{"id":9518,"name":9519,"slug":9520,"description":9521,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":28,"views":9522,"shortDescription":9523,"researchStatus":9524,"peptideBenefits":9525,"benefits":9567,"peptideSideEffects":9583,"sideEffects":9621,"dosage":9639,"mechanism":9640,"safetyNote":9641,"athleteWarning":5130,"chemicalMakeup":9642,"citations":9643,"research":9874,"statsCache":9875,"imageUrl":9877,"molecularWeight":9878,"molecularFormula":9879,"pubchemId":9880,"sequence":9881,"halfLife":9882,"administrationRoute":1795,"casNumber":9883,"smiles":9884,"totalMentions":3651,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"protocols":9885,"aliases":9896,"researchAreas":9902,"evidence":9906,"keyStudies":9911,"limitations":9928,"pharmacology":9929,"faqs":9930,"lastReviewed":359},74,"BPC-157","bpc-157","BPC-157, short for Body Protection Compound-157, is a 15-amino acid peptide naturally found in human gastric (stomach) juice. Think of it as your body's built-in repair mechanism, amplified. **What does it do?** Research shows BPC-157 acts like a cellular \"handyman\" — it helps your body repair damaged tissues faster, whether that's tendons, ligaments, muscles, or your gut lining. It works by boosting blood vessel formation (angiogenesis) and stimulating the production of collagen, the protein that holds your tissues together. **Key research findings:** • Accelerates healing of soft tissue injuries in animal studies • Protects and heals the gastrointestinal tract • May help counteract damage from NSAIDs (like ibuprofen) • Phase II clinical trials for ulcerative colitis showed no significant side effects • No lethal dose has been established in toxicology studies **Important to know:** While animal research is extensive and promising, human clinical studies remain limited. Most evidence comes from rodent and cell studies. --- **Sources:** Seiwerth S, et al. (2018) Current Pharmaceutical Design. DOI:10.2174/1381612824666180712110447 | Gwyer D, et al. (2019) Cell Tissue Research. DOI:10.1007/s00441-019-03016-8 | Kang EA, et al. (2024) Inflammopharmacology. DOI:10.1007/s10787-024-01499-8",787,"Body Protection Compound for accelerated tissue healing and repair","Investigational - Not approved for human use",[9526,9531,9533,9535,9536,9538,9540,9541,9543,9545,9548,9551,9555,9559,9563],{"id":9527,"benefit":9528,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":9529,"sourceUrl":9530,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},49,"Accelerated wound healing","1p9frqk","https://reddit.com/r/Peptides/comments/1p9frqk/starting_bpc157_for_my_soft_tissue_injury/",{"id":153,"benefit":9532,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":9529,"sourceUrl":9530,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Tendon and ligament repair",{"id":427,"benefit":9534,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":9529,"sourceUrl":9530,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Muscle tissue regeneration",{"id":434,"benefit":3009,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":9529,"sourceUrl":9530,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":1015,"benefit":9537,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":9529,"sourceUrl":9530,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Gastrointestinal protection",{"id":4136,"benefit":9539,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":9529,"sourceUrl":9530,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Accelerated healing",{"id":3969,"benefit":3007,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":9529,"sourceUrl":9530,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":9542,"benefit":3649,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":9529,"sourceUrl":9530,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},66,{"id":9314,"benefit":9544,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":9529,"sourceUrl":9530,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Gut health support",{"id":9546,"benefit":9547,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":9529,"sourceUrl":9530,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},68,"Injury recovery",{"id":9549,"benefit":9550,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":9529,"sourceUrl":9530,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},69,"Angiogenesis promotion",{"id":9552,"benefit":9553,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":9554,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},460,"Gastrointestinal Protection: Anti-ulcer activity throughout GI tract, heals anastomoses","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17186181/",{"id":9556,"benefit":9557,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":9558,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},458,"Wound Healing: Promotes skin, tendon, ligament, and GI tract healing via VEGF/angiogenesis pathways","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34267654/",{"id":9560,"benefit":9561,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":9562,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},459,"Tendon/Ligament Repair: FAK-paxillin pathway activation; accelerates Achilles tendon healing","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21030672/",{"id":9564,"benefit":9565,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":9566,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},461,"Vascular Protection: Prevents thrombosis, promotes collateral circulation","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23782145/",[9568,9569,9570,9571,9572,9573,9574,9575,9576,9577,9578,9579,9580,9581,9582],{"id":9527,"benefit":9528,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":9529,"sourceUrl":9530,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":153,"benefit":9532,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":9529,"sourceUrl":9530,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":427,"benefit":9534,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":9529,"sourceUrl":9530,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":434,"benefit":3009,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":9529,"sourceUrl":9530,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":1015,"benefit":9537,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":9529,"sourceUrl":9530,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":4136,"benefit":9539,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":9529,"sourceUrl":9530,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3969,"benefit":3007,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":9529,"sourceUrl":9530,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":9542,"benefit":3649,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":9529,"sourceUrl":9530,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":9314,"benefit":9544,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":9529,"sourceUrl":9530,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":9546,"benefit":9547,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":9529,"sourceUrl":9530,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":9549,"benefit":9550,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":9529,"sourceUrl":9530,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":9552,"benefit":9553,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":9554,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":9556,"benefit":9557,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":9558,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":9560,"benefit":9561,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":9562,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":9564,"benefit":9565,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":9566,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},[9584,9587,9589,9591,9594,9598,9601,9602,9603,9604,9606,9608,9609,9610,9611,9613,9617],{"id":3918,"sideEffect":9585,"description":23,"severity":23,"frequency":23,"source":24,"sourceType":24,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":9586,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":9519,"evidenceLevel":46,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"110 μg for a 150lb person","https://examine.com/supplements/bpc-157/",{"id":3924,"sideEffect":9588,"description":23,"severity":23,"frequency":23,"source":24,"sourceType":24,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":9586,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":9519,"evidenceLevel":46,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"145 μg for a 200lb person",{"id":3930,"sideEffect":9590,"description":23,"severity":23,"frequency":23,"source":24,"sourceType":24,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":9586,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":9519,"evidenceLevel":46,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"180 μg for a 250lb person",{"id":9592,"sideEffect":9593,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":23,"source":44,"sourceType":44,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":9554,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},304,"No toxicity reported",{"id":9595,"sideEffect":9596,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":23,"source":44,"sourceType":44,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":9597,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},305,"No adverse reactions documented","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30915550/",{"id":9599,"sideEffect":9600,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":23,"source":44,"sourceType":44,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":9558,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},306,"No human trial toxicity",{"id":3638,"sideEffect":1272,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":9530,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":2537,"sideEffect":125,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":9530,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":6865,"sideEffect":405,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":9530,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":1221,"sideEffect":9605,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":9530,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Increased appetite",{"id":16,"sideEffect":9607,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":9530,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Local irritation",{"id":1217,"sideEffect":1898,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":9530,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":6267,"sideEffect":6895,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":9530,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":9527,"sideEffect":6623,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":9530,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":6264,"sideEffect":9612,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":9530,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"GI upset (nausea, diarrhea, vomiting)",{"id":267,"sideEffect":120,"description":23,"severity":23,"frequency":9614,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":9615,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":9519,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":9616,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"0% (n=2 pilot study)","pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40131143/","No intervention needed",{"id":272,"sideEffect":398,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":117,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":9618,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":9519,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":9619,"management":9620,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},"pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40756949/","During dosing","Self-resolving after 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mcg Daily","Promotes angiogenesis and tissue healing","No human clinical trials completed. Research compound only - not for human consumption.","GLP-1/GCG dual agonist peptide analog",[9644,9648,9652,9657,9662,9666,9671,9675,9676,9680,9684,9688,9693,9698,9704,9709,9714,9719,9724,9729,9734,9739,9744,9750,9755,9761,9765,9770,9776,9781,9785,9788,9793,9798,9803,9807,9812,9816,9821,9825,9829,9833,9837,9843,9848,9852,9857,9861,9866,9870],{"id":2541,"title":9645,"authors":155,"journal":4132,"year":458,"citationType":158,"doi":9646,"researchPaperId":9647},"BPC 157: A Review of Its Regenerative and Protective Properties","10.3390/ph17050597","pubmed_41155565",{"id":7440,"title":9649,"authors":155,"journal":1493,"year":458,"citationType":158,"doi":9650,"researchPaperId":9651},"BPC-157 and Tendon Healing: Mechanisms and Applications","10.3390/biom14080942","pubmed_40573323",{"id":4579,"title":9653,"authors":155,"journal":9654,"year":478,"citationType":158,"doi":9655,"researchPaperId":9656},"Gastric Pentadecapeptide BPC 157 in Wound Healing","Molecules","10.3390/molecules28237912","pubmed_39909207",{"id":8060,"title":9658,"authors":155,"journal":9659,"year":478,"citationType":158,"doi":9660,"researchPaperId":9661},"BPC 157 and Standard Angiogenic Growth Factors: Gastrointestinal Tract Healing","Current Pharmaceutical Design","10.2174/1381612829666230626104222","pubmed_38980576",{"id":6891,"title":9663,"authors":9664,"journal":7355,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":9665},"Gastric pentadecapeptide body protection compound BPC 157 and its role in accelerating musculoskeletal soft tissue healing.","Gwyer D, Wragg NM, Wilson SL","10.1007/s00441-019-03016-8",{"id":6894,"title":9667,"authors":9668,"journal":9669,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":9670},"Multifunctionality and Possible Medical Application of the BPC 157 Peptide-Literature and Patent Review.","Józwiak M, Bauer M, Kamysz W, Kleczkowska P","Pharmaceuticals (Basel, Switzerland)","10.3390/ph18020185",{"id":3262,"title":9672,"authors":9673,"journal":2183,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":9674},"Stable Gastric Pentadecapeptide BPC 157 and Wound Healing.","Seiwerth S, Milavic M, Vukojevic J, Gojkovic S, Krezic I, Vuletic LB, Pavlov KH, Petrovic A, Sikiric S, Vranes H, Prtoric A, Zizek H, Durasin T, Dobric I, Staresinic M, Strbe S, Knezevic M, Sola M, Kokot A, Sever M, Lovric E, Skrtic A, Blagaic AB, Sikiric P","10.3389/fphar.2021.627533",{"id":3264,"title":5265,"authors":5266,"journal":2788,"year":465,"citationType":167},{"id":3267,"title":9677,"authors":9678,"journal":3069,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":9679},"BPC 157 and Standard Angiogenic Growth Factors. Gastrointestinal Tract Healing, Lessons from Tendon, Ligament, Muscle and Bone Healing.","Seiwerth S, Rucman R, Turkovic B, Sever M, Klicek R, Radic B, Drmic D, Stupnisek M, Misic M, Vuletic LB, Pavlov KH, Barisic I, Kokot A, Japjec M, Blagaic AB, Tvrdeic A, Rokotov DS, Vrcic H, Staresinic M, Sebecic B, Sikiric P","10.2174/1381612824666180712110447",{"id":3270,"title":9681,"authors":9682,"journal":9669,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":9683},"Stable Gastric Pentadecapeptide BPC 157-Possible Novel Therapy of Glaucoma and Other Ocular Conditions.","Sikiric P, Kokot A, Kralj T, Zlatar M, Masnec S, Lazic R, Loncaric K, Oroz K, Sablic M, Boljesic M, Antunovic M, Sikiric S, Strbe S, Stambolija V, Beketic Oreskovic L, Kavelj I, Novosel L, Zubcic S, Krezic I, Skrtic A, Jurjevic I, Boban Blagaic A, Seiwerth S, Staresinic M","10.3390/ph16071052",{"id":3273,"title":9685,"authors":9686,"journal":2189,"year":1122,"citationType":167,"doi":9687},"The promoting effect of pentadecapeptide BPC 157 on tendon healing involves tendon outgrowth, cell survival, and cell migration.","Chang CH, Tsai WC, Lin MS, Hsu YH, Pang JH","10.1152/japplphysiol.00945.2010",{"id":3276,"title":9689,"authors":9690,"journal":9691,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":9692},"Pentadecapeptide BPC 157 and the central nervous system.","Vukojevic J, Milavić M, Perović D, Ilić S, Čilić AZ, Đuran N, Štrbe S, Zoričić Z, Filipčić I, Brečić P, Seiverth S, Sikirić P","Neural regeneration research","10.4103/1673-5374.320969",{"id":9694,"title":9695,"authors":9696,"journal":3069,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":9697},260,"BPC 157 Rescued NSAID-cytotoxicity Via Stabilizing Intestinal Permeability and Enhancing Cytoprotection.","Park JM, Lee HJ, Sikiric P, Hahm KB","10.2174/1381612826666200523180301",{"id":9699,"title":9700,"authors":9701,"journal":9702,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":9703},261,"Emerging Use of BPC-157 in Orthopaedic Sports Medicine: A Systematic Review.","Vasireddi N, Hahamyan H, Salata MJ, Karns M, Calcei JG, Voos JE, Apostolakos JM","HSS journal : the musculoskeletal journal of Hospital for Special Surgery","10.1177/15563316251355551",{"id":9705,"title":9706,"authors":9707,"journal":4475,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":9708},262,"Stable Gastric Pentadecapeptide BPC 157 and Striated, Smooth, and Heart Muscle.","Staresinic M, Japjec M, Vranes H, Prtoric A, Zizek H, Krezic I, Gojkovic S, Smoday IM, Oroz K, Staresinic E, Dretar V, Yago H, Milavic M, Sikiric S, Lovric E, Batelja Vuletic L, Simeon P, Dobric I, Strbe S, Kokot A, Vlainic J, Blagaic AB, Skrtic A, Seiwerth S, Sikiric P","10.3390/biomedicines10123221",{"id":9710,"title":9711,"authors":9712,"journal":3069,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":9713},263,"Fistulas Healing. Stable Gastric Pentadecapeptide BPC 157 Therapy.","Sikiric P, Drmic D, Sever M, Klicek R, Blagaic AB, Tvrdeic A, Kralj T, Kovac KK, Vukojevic J, Siroglavic M, Gojkovic S, Krezic I, Pavlov KH, Rasic D, Mirkovic I, Kokot A, Skrtic A, Seiwerth S","10.2174/1381612826666200424180139",{"id":9715,"title":9716,"authors":9717,"journal":9669,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":9718},264,"Stable Gastric Pentadecapeptide BPC 157 and Intestinal Anastomoses Therapy in Rats-A Review.","Bajramagic S, Sever M, Rasic F, Staresinic M, Skrtic A, Beketic Oreskovic L, Oreskovic I, Strbe S, Loga Zec S, Hrabar J, Coric L, Prenc M, Blagaic V, Brcic K, Boban Blagaic A, Seiwerth S, Sikiric P","10.3390/ph17081081",{"id":9720,"title":9721,"authors":9722,"journal":3069,"year":1152,"citationType":167,"doi":9723},265,"BPC 157 and blood vessels.","Seiwerth S, Brcic L, Vuletic LB, Kolenc D, Aralica G, Misic M, Zenko A, Drmic D, Rucman R, Sikiric P","10.2174/13816128113199990421",{"id":9725,"title":9726,"authors":9727,"journal":9669,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":9728},266,"Stable Gastric Pentadecapeptide BPC 157 May Recover Brain-Gut Axis and Gut-Brain Axis Function.","Sikiric P, Gojkovic S, Krezic I, Smoday IM, Kalogjera L, Zizek H, Oroz K, Vranes H, Vukovic V, Labidi M, Strbe S, Baketic Oreskovic L, Sever M, Tepes M, Knezevic M, Barisic I, Blagaic V, Vlainic J, Dobric I, Staresinic M, Skrtic A, Jurjevic I, Boban Blagaic A, Seiwerth S","10.3390/ph16050676",{"id":9730,"title":9731,"authors":9732,"journal":9669,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":9733},267,"The Stable Gastric Pentadecapeptide BPC 157 Pleiotropic Beneficial Activity and Its Possible Relations with Neurotransmitter Activity.","Sikiric P, Boban Blagaic A, Strbe S, Beketic Oreskovic L, Oreskovic I, Sikiric S, Staresinic M, Sever M, Kokot A, Jurjevic I, Matek D, Coric L, Krezic I, Tvrdeic A, Luetic K, Batelja Vuletic L, Pavic P, Mestrovic T, Sjekavica I, Skrtic A, Seiwerth S","10.3390/ph17040461",{"id":9735,"title":9736,"authors":9737,"journal":4475,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":9738},268,"Stable Gastric Pentadecapeptide BPC 157 as Useful Cytoprotective Peptide Therapy in the Heart Disturbances, Myocardial Infarction, Heart Failure, Pulmonary Hypertension, Arrhythmias, and Thrombosis Presentation.","Sikiric P, Udovicic M, Barisic I, Balenovic D, Zivanovic Posilovic G, Strinic D, Uzun S, Sikiric S, Krezic I, Zizek H, Yago H, Gojkovic S, Smoday IM, Kalogjera L, Vranes H, Sola M, Strbe S, Koprivanac A, Premuzic Mestrovic I, Mestrovic T, Pavic P, Skrtic A, Blagaic AB, Lovric Bencic M, Seiwerth S","10.3390/biomedicines10112696",{"id":9740,"title":9741,"authors":9742,"journal":4412,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":9743},269,"Stable Gastric Pentadecapeptide BPC 157: Prompt Particular Activation of Collateral Pathways.","Sikiric P, Gojkovic S, Knezevic M, Tepes M, Strbe S, Vukojevic J, Duzel A, Kralj T, Krezic I, Zizek H, Oroz K, Vranes H, Smoday IM, Kalogjera L, Vlainic J, Kokot A, Jurjevic I, Blagaic AB, Skrtic A, Seiwerth S","10.2174/0929867329666221005111553",{"id":9745,"title":9746,"authors":9747,"journal":9748,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":9749},270,"Stable Gastric Pentadecapeptide BPC 157, Robert's Stomach Cytoprotection/Adaptive Cytoprotection/Organoprotection, and Selye's Stress Coping Response: Progress, Achievements, and the Future.","Sikiric P, Hahm KB, Blagaic AB, Tvrdeic A, Pavlov KH, Petrovic A, Kokot A, Gojkovic S, Krezic I, Drmic D, Rucman R, Seiwerth S","Gut and liver","10.5009/gnl18490",{"id":9751,"title":9752,"authors":9753,"journal":3069,"year":1152,"citationType":167,"doi":9754},271,"Stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157-NO-system relation.","Sikiric P, Seiwerth S, Rucman R, Turkovic B, Rokotov DS, Brcic L, Sever M, Klicek R, Radic B, Drmic D, Ilic S, Kolenc D, Aralica G, Stupnisek M, Suran J, Barisic I, Dzidic S, Vrcic H, Sebecic B","10.2174/13816128113190990411",{"id":9756,"title":9757,"authors":9758,"journal":9759,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":9760},272,"Regeneration or Risk? A Narrative Review of BPC-157 for Musculoskeletal Healing.","McGuire FP, Martinez R, Lenz A, Skinner L, Cushman DM","Current reviews in musculoskeletal medicine","10.1007/s12178-025-09990-7",{"id":9762,"title":9763,"authors":9764,"journal":2788,"year":458,"citationType":167},273,"Effect of BPC-157 on Symptoms in Patients with Interstitial Cystitis: A Pilot Study.","Lee E, Walker C, Ayadi B",{"id":9766,"title":9767,"authors":9768,"journal":8512,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":9769},274,"Cytoprotective gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157 resolves major vessel occlusion disturbances, ischemia-reperfusion injury following Pringle maneuver, and Budd-Chiari syndrome.","Sikiric P, Skrtic A, Gojkovic S, Krezic I, Zizek H, Lovric E, Sikiric S, Knezevic M, Strbe S, Milavic M, Kokot A, Blagaic AB, Seiwerth S","10.3748/wjg.v28.i1.23",{"id":9771,"title":9772,"authors":9773,"journal":9774,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":9775},275,"Brain-gut Axis and Pentadecapeptide BPC 157: Theoretical and Practical Implications.","Sikiric P, Seiwerth S, Rucman R, Kolenc D, Vuletic LB, Drmic D, Grgic T, Strbe S, Zukanovic G, Crvenkovic D, Madzarac G, Rukavina I, Sucic M, Baric M, Starcevic N, Krstonijevic Z, Bencic ML, Filipcic I, Rokotov DS, Vlainic J","Current neuropharmacology","10.2174/1570159x13666160502153022",{"id":1846,"title":9777,"authors":9778,"journal":9779,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":9780},"BPC 157 as Potential Treatment for COVID-19.","Deek SA","Medical hypotheses","10.1016/j.mehy.2021.110736",{"id":1849,"title":9782,"authors":9783,"journal":3069,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":9784},"BPC157 as Potential Agent Rescuing from Cancer Cachexia.","Kang EA, Han YM, An JM, Park YJ, Sikiric P, Kim DH, Kwon KA, Kim YJ, Yang D, Tchah H, Hahm KB","10.2174/1381612824666180614082950",{"id":1852,"title":9786,"authors":9787,"journal":2788,"year":157,"citationType":167},"Safety of Intravenous Infusion of BPC157 in Humans: A Pilot Study.","Lee E, Burgess K",{"id":1854,"title":9789,"authors":9790,"journal":9791,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":9792},"Injectable Therapeutic Peptides-An Adjunct to Regenerative Medicine and Sports Performance?","DeFoor MT, Dekker TJ","Arthroscopy : the journal of arthroscopic & related surgery : official publication of the Arthroscopy Association of North America and the International Arthroscopy Association","10.1016/j.arthro.2024.09.005",{"id":1857,"title":9794,"authors":9795,"journal":9796,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":9797},"Preclinical safety evaluation of body protective compound-157, a potential drug for treating various wounds.","Xu C, Sun L, Ren F, Huang P, Tian Z, Cui J, Zhang W, Wang S, Zhang K, He L, Zhang W, Zhang C, Hao Q, Zhang Y, Li M, Li W","Regulatory toxicology and pharmacology : RTP","10.1016/j.yrtph.2020.104665",{"id":1859,"title":9799,"authors":9800,"journal":9801,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":9802},"Therapeutic potential of pro-angiogenic BPC157 is associated with VEGFR2 activation and up-regulation.","Hsieh MJ, Liu HT, Wang CN, Huang HY, Lin Y, Ko YS, Wang JS, Chang VH, Pang JS","Journal of molecular medicine (Berlin, Germany)","10.1007/s00109-016-1488-y",{"id":1644,"title":9804,"authors":9805,"journal":1071,"year":249,"citationType":167,"doi":9806},"Effects of pentadecapeptide BPC157 on regional serotonin synthesis in the rat brain: alpha-methyl-L-tryptophan autoradiographic measurements.","Tohyama Y, Sikirić P, Diksic M","10.1016/j.lfs.2004.08.010",{"id":1647,"title":9808,"authors":9809,"journal":9810,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":9811},"Cytoprotective Mechanism of the Novel Gastric Peptide BPC157 in Gastrointestinal Tract and Cultured Enteric Neurons and Glial Cells.","Wang XY, Qu M, Duan R, Shi D, Jin L, Gao J, Wood JD, Li J, Wang GD","Neuroscience bulletin","10.1007/s12264-018-0269-8",{"id":1650,"title":9813,"authors":9814,"journal":2183,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":9815},"Pharmacokinetics, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of body-protective compound 157, a potential drug for treating various wounds, in rats and dogs.","He L, Feng D, Guo H, Zhou Y, Li Z, Zhang K, Zhang W, Wang S, Wang Z, Hao Q, Zhang C, Gao Y, Gu J, Zhang Y, Li W, Li M","10.3389/fphar.2022.1026182",{"id":1652,"title":9817,"authors":9818,"journal":9819,"year":249,"citationType":167,"doi":9820},"Doxorubicine-congestive heart failure-increased big endothelin-1 plasma concentration: reversal by amlodipine, losartan, and gastric pentadecapeptide BPC157 in rat and mouse.","Lovric-Bencic M, Sikiric P, Hanzevacki JS, Seiwerth S, Rogic D, Kusec V, Aralica G, Konjevoda P, Batelja L, Blagaic AB","Journal of pharmacological sciences","10.1254/jphs.95.19",{"id":1655,"title":9822,"authors":9823,"journal":9824,"year":3074,"citationType":167},"The influence of gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157 on acute and chronic ethanol administration in mice. The effect of N(G)-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester and L-arginine.","Boban-Blagaic A, Blagaic V, Romic Z, Jelovac N, Dodig G, Rucman R, Petek M, Turkovic B, Seiwerth S, Sikiric P","Medical science monitor : international medical journal of experimental and clinical research",{"id":1657,"title":9826,"authors":9827,"journal":1145,"year":723,"citationType":167,"doi":9828},"The influence of a novel pentadecapeptide, BPC 157, on N(G)-nitro-L-arginine methylester and L-arginine effects on stomach mucosa integrity and blood pressure.","Sikirić P, Seiwerth S, Grabarević Z, Rucman R, Petek M, Jagić V, Turković B, Rotkvić I, Mise S, Zoricić I, Konjevoda P, Perović D, Jurina L, Separović J, Hanzevacki M, Artuković B, Bratulić M, Tisljar M, Gjurasin M, Miklić P, Stancić-Rokotov D, Slobodnjak Z, Jelovac N, Marović A","10.1016/s0014-2999(97)01033-9",{"id":7460,"title":9830,"authors":9831,"journal":7853,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":9832},"Protective Effects of BPC 157 on Liver, Kidney, and Lung Distant Organ Damage in Rats with Experimental Lower-Extremity Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury.","Demirtaş H, Özer A, Yıldırım AK, Dursun AD, Sezen ŞC, Arslan M","10.3390/medicina61020291",{"id":7463,"title":9834,"authors":9835,"journal":2707,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":9836},"Concerning BPC-157, a natural pentadecapeptide, that acts as a cytoprotectant and is believed to protect the gastro-intestinal tract (GIT).","Whitehouse M","10.1007/s10787-025-01882-z",{"id":9838,"title":9839,"authors":9840,"journal":9841,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":9842},290,"Compounded glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists for weight loss: the direct-to-consumer market in Colorado.","DiStefano MJ, Dardouri M, Moore GD, Saseen JJ, Nair KV","Journal of pharmaceutical policy and practice","10.1080/20523211.2024.2441220",{"id":9844,"title":9845,"authors":9846,"journal":1145,"year":736,"citationType":167,"doi":9847},291,"New model of cytoprotection/adaptive cytoprotection in rats: endogenous small irritants, antiulcer agents and indomethacin.","Sikirić P, Seiwerth S, Desković S, Grabarević Z, Marović A, Rucman R, Petek M, Konjevoda P, Jadrijević S, Sosa T, Perović D, Aralica G, Turković B","10.1016/s0014-2999(98)00818-8",{"id":8417,"title":9849,"authors":9850,"journal":3069,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":9851},"\"Stress\" is 80 Years Old: From Hans Selye Original Paper in 1936 to Recent Advances in GI Ulceration.","Szabo S, Yoshida M, Filakovszky J, Juhasz G","10.2174/1381612823666170622110046",{"id":8420,"title":9853,"authors":9854,"journal":9855,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":9856},"The anti-nociceptive effect of BPC-157 on the incisional pain model in rats.","Jung YH, Kim H, Kim H, Kim E, Baik J, Kang H","Journal of dental anesthesia and pain medicine","10.17245/jdapm.2022.22.2.97",{"id":8422,"title":9858,"authors":9859,"journal":1754,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":9860},"Stable Isotope Labeling-Based Nontargeted Strategy for Characterization of the In Vitro Metabolic Profile of a Novel Doping BPC-157 in Doping Control by UHPLC-HRMS.","Tian T, Jing J, Li Y, Wang Y, Deng X, Shan Y","10.3390/molecules28217345",{"id":5036,"title":9862,"authors":9863,"journal":9864,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":9865},"Engineering recombinant Lactococcus lactis as a delivery vehicle for BPC-157 peptide with antioxidant activities.","Škrlec K, Ručman R, Jarc E, Sikirić P, Švajger U, Petan T, Perišić Nanut M, Štrukelj B, Berlec A","Applied microbiology and biotechnology","10.1007/s00253-018-9333-6",{"id":5039,"title":9867,"authors":9868,"journal":5287,"year":173,"citationType":167,"doi":9869},"Corticosteroid-impairment of healing and gastric pentadecapeptide BPC-157 creams in burned mice.","Sikiric P, Seiwerth S, Mise S, Staresinic M, Bedekovic V, Zarkovic N, Borovic S, Gjurasin M, Boban-Blagaic A, Batelja L, Rucman R, Anic T","10.1016/s0305-4179(03)00004-4",{"id":2347,"title":9871,"authors":9872,"journal":6540,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":9873},"Body protective compound-157 enhances alkali-burn wound healing in vivo and promotes proliferation, migration, and angiogenesis in vitro.","Huang T, Zhang K, Sun L, Xue X, Zhang C, Shu Z, Mu N, Gu J, Zhang W, Wang Y, Zhang Y, Zhang W","10.2147/DDDT.S82030",[],{"totalProtocols":861,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":3651,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":9876},"2026-01-05T22:12:00.600862","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/bpc-157.avif","1419.53","C62H98N16O22","9941957","GEPPPGKPADDAGLV","\u003C30 minutes","137525-51-0","C[C@@H](C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(=O)O)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(=O)O)C(=O)N[C@@H](C)C(=O)NCC(=O)N[C@@H](CC(C)C)C(=O)N[C@@H](C(C)C)C(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@@H]1CCCN1C(=O)[C@H](CCCCN)NC(=O)CNC(=O)[C@@H]2CCCN2C(=O)[C@@H]3CCCN3C(=O)[C@@H]4CCCN4C(=O)[C@H](CCC(=O)O)NC(=O)CN",[9886,9890,9893,9895],{"name":9887,"dose":9888,"frequency":3984,"route":9889},"Tendon/Joint healing","250-500mcg","SubQ near injury",{"name":9891,"dose":9892,"frequency":5807,"route":9889},"Serious injury","500-1000mcg",{"name":9894,"dose":9888,"frequency":3984,"route":1595},"General healing",{"name":892,"dose":4298,"frequency":3989,"route":555},[9897,9898,9899,9900,9901],"BPC 157","Body Protection Compound-157","Stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157","Pentadecapeptide BPC 157","PL 14736",[9903,9904,9905,3009],"Gastrointestinal mucosal protection and healing","Tendon, ligament and muscle healing","Wound healing and angiogenesis",{"human":9907,"animal":9908,"inVitro":9909,"uncertain":9910},"No FDA approval and no large randomized controlled trials in humans were identified; published human evidence is essentially absent, with use limited to unregulated/off-label settings.","Extensive rat studies (mainly from the Zagreb group) show BPC 157 accelerates healing of transected Achilles tendon, improves tendon-to-bone healing at the myotendinous junction, protects gastrointestinal mucosa (Robert's cytoprotection paradigm), and modulates nitric oxide pathways.","In vitro studies report stimulation of tendon cell (tenocyte) growth and pro-angiogenic effects.","Claims of systemic 'whole-body healing', athletic recovery benefits and specific human dosing protocols are not supported by published clinical trials.",[9912,9916,9920,9924],{"finding":9913,"source":9914,"year":249,"link":9915,"evidenceLevel":50},"BPC 157 accelerated healing of transected rat Achilles tendon and stimulated tenocyte growth in vitro, supporting tendon-healing effects.","Preclinical study (rat Achilles tendon transection + in vitro tenocyte assay)","https://doi.org/10.1016/S0736-0266(03)00110-4",{"finding":9917,"source":9918,"year":465,"link":9919,"evidenceLevel":50},"BPC 157 promoted healing of disabled rat myotendinous junctions after injury.","Preclinical study (Biomedicines)","https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines9111547",{"finding":9921,"source":9922,"year":437,"link":9923,"evidenceLevel":50},"Review of BPC 157 in striated, smooth and heart muscle summarizes tissue-protective and healing effects across rat muscle injury models.","Narrative review (Biomedicines)","https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines10123221",{"finding":9925,"source":9926,"year":451,"link":9927,"evidenceLevel":50},"Review positions BPC 157 within Robert's gastric cytoprotection/organoprotection and stress-coping framework, summarizing gastrointestinal protection data.","Review article (PMC)","https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7096228/","Evidence is dominated by a single research group's animal models with limited independent replication; no adequately powered randomized human trials exist; mechanism (angiogenesis, nitric oxide modulation) remains incompletely characterized; formulation, dosing and long-term human safety are unestablished.","Pentadecapeptide (15 amino acids) derived from a human gastric juice protein; reported to be stable in gastric juice. Human pharmacokinetics (half-life, bioavailability) are not established; typically administered parenterally in research settings. Proposed mechanism involves nitric oxide pathway modulation and angiogenesis.",[9931,9934],{"question":9932,"answer":9933},"Is BPC-157 FDA-approved?","No. It is not an approved drug anywhere; human use is off-label/research and largely unregulated.",{"question":9935,"answer":9936},"Does BPC-157 work for tendon injuries?","Animal studies show accelerated tendon healing in rats, but human clinical confirmation is lacking.",{"id":9484,"name":9938,"slug":9939,"description":9940,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":28,"views":6865,"shortDescription":9941,"researchStatus":9942,"peptideBenefits":9943,"benefits":9975,"peptideSideEffects":9988,"sideEffects":10017,"dosage":10028,"mechanism":10029,"safetyNote":148,"athleteWarning":10030,"chemicalMakeup":10031,"citations":10032,"research":10143,"statsCache":10144,"imageUrl":10146,"molecularWeight":10147,"molecularFormula":10148,"pubchemId":10149,"sequence":10150,"halfLife":10151,"administrationRoute":540,"casNumber":10152,"smiles":10153,"totalMentions":1021,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"protocols":10154,"aliases":10169,"researchAreas":10174,"evidence":10179,"keyStudies":10184,"limitations":10193,"pharmacology":10194,"faqs":10195,"lastReviewed":359},"CJC-1295","cjc-1295","CJC-1295 is a synthetic peptide that stimulates your pituitary gland to produce growth hormone. What makes it special is its extended duration — while natural growth hormone-releasing hormone lasts only minutes, CJC-1295 can keep working for up to two weeks. **How does it work?** CJC-1295 uses \"Drug Affinity Complex\" (DAC) technology — essentially, it attaches to albumin (a protein in your blood), which dramatically extends how long it stays active in your body. This means sustained, steady growth hormone elevation rather than quick spikes. **What the research shows:** • Increases growth hormone levels in a more natural, pulsatile pattern • May support lean muscle growth and fat metabolism • Could improve recovery and sleep quality • Often combined with Ipamorelin for synergistic effects **CJC-1295 vs. Mod GRF 1-29:** You might see \"CJC-1295 without DAC\" or \"Mod GRF 1-29\" — this is a shorter-acting version requiring more frequent dosing but offering more control over GH pulses. **Typical use:** Injected subcutaneously, usually 1-2 times per week for the DAC version, or 2-3 times daily for the non-DAC version. **Important to know:** CJC-1295 is banned by WADA and not FDA-approved for any medical condition. Human clinical data remains limited. --- **Sources:** Teichman SL, et al. (2006) Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism | Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis (2022). DOI:10.1016/j.jpba.2022.114726","Long-acting GHRH analog for sustained growth hormone elevation","Research compound - GHRH analog",[9944,9946,9948,9951,9953,9955,9956,9960,9962,9965,9968,9971],{"id":3336,"benefit":9945,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Fat loss support",{"id":9518,"benefit":9947,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Growth hormone boost",{"id":9949,"benefit":9950,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},75,"Lean muscle mass",{"id":1683,"benefit":9952,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Enhanced recovery",{"id":5853,"benefit":9954,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Improved sleep quality",{"id":5498,"benefit":34,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":9957,"benefit":9958,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":9959,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},470,"GH/IGF-1 Elevation: 2-10 fold GH increase for 6+ days; 45% IGF-1 increase","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16352683/",{"id":8121,"benefit":9961,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":9959,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},"Extended Half-life: 5.8-8.1 days vs minutes for native GHRH",{"id":9963,"benefit":9964,"benefitCategory":60,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},538,"Sustained GH elevation for 6+ days",{"id":9966,"benefit":9967,"benefitCategory":60,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},539,"IGF-I elevation for 9-11 days",{"id":9969,"benefit":9970,"benefitCategory":60,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},540,"Preserved physiological GH pulsatility",{"id":9972,"benefit":9973,"benefitCategory":9974,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},541,"Extended half-life of 5.8-8.1 days","pharmacokinetic",[9976,9977,9978,9979,9980,9981,9982,9983,9984,9985,9986,9987],{"id":3336,"benefit":9945,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":9518,"benefit":9947,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":9949,"benefit":9950,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":1683,"benefit":9952,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":5853,"benefit":9954,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":5498,"benefit":34,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":9957,"benefit":9958,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":9959,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":8121,"benefit":9961,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":9959,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":9963,"benefit":9964,"benefitCategory":60,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":9966,"benefit":9967,"benefitCategory":60,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":9969,"benefit":9970,"benefitCategory":60,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":9972,"benefit":9973,"benefitCategory":9974,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},[9989,9991,9995,10003,10004,10006,10008,10010,10012,10015],{"id":9990,"sideEffect":1900,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":23,"source":44,"sourceType":44,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":9959,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},316,{"id":9992,"sideEffect":9993,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":23,"source":44,"sourceType":44,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":9994,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},317,"WADA Prohibited","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21204297/",{"id":235,"sideEffect":9996,"description":23,"severity":9997,"frequency":9998,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":9999,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":10000,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":15,"onset":10001,"management":10002,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Severe/Fatal side effect","Severe/Fatal","Very rare (1/192 patients)","aidsmap.com","CJC-1295 DAC","~2 hours post-dose","Phase II trial HALTED",{"id":153,"sideEffect":1269,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":427,"sideEffect":10005,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Water retention",{"id":434,"sideEffect":10007,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Joint pain",{"id":1015,"sideEffect":10009,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Hunger increase",{"id":1021,"sideEffect":10011,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Rare dizziness or prolactin rise",{"id":226,"sideEffect":398,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":5476,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":7820,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":9938,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":10013,"management":10014,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},"Hours-days","Symptomatic treatment",{"id":231,"sideEffect":398,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":10016,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":7820,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":9938,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":10013,"management":10014,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},"Common (10-15%)",[10018,10019,10020,10021,10022,10023,10024,10025,10026,10027],{"id":9990,"sideEffect":1900,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":23,"source":44,"sourceType":44,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":9959,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":9992,"sideEffect":9993,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":23,"source":44,"sourceType":44,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":9994,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":235,"sideEffect":9996,"description":23,"severity":9997,"frequency":9998,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":9999,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":10000,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":15,"onset":10001,"management":10002,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":153,"sideEffect":1269,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":427,"sideEffect":10005,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":434,"sideEffect":10007,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":1015,"sideEffect":10009,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":1021,"sideEffect":10011,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":226,"sideEffect":398,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":5476,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":7820,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":9938,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":10013,"management":10014,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},{"id":231,"sideEffect":398,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":10016,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":7820,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":9938,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":10013,"management":10014,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},"100-300 mcg (no DAC) / 2 mg (DAC) 1-2x/day (no DAC) or 1-2x/week (DAC)","GHRH analogue with extended half-life","WADA BANNED - Prohibited in competitive sports as growth hormone releasing agent","Synthetic GHRH analog, 30 amino acids with drug affinity complex (DAC) linker",[10033,10038,10042,10046,10051,10055,10059,10063,10067,10071,10075,10079,10083,10088,10093,10097,10101,10105,10110,10115,10116,10121,10126,10131,10135,10139],{"id":7761,"title":10034,"authors":155,"journal":10035,"year":458,"citationType":158,"doi":10036,"researchPaperId":10037},"Growth Hormone Secretagogue Research: CJC-1295 and Related Compounds","Advances in Therapy","10.1007/s12325-024-02889-0","pubmed_41138283",{"id":7750,"title":10039,"authors":155,"journal":3059,"year":458,"citationType":430,"doi":10040,"researchPaperId":10041},"CJC-1295 Applications in Growth Hormone Deficiency","10.1016/j.peptides.2024.171145","pubmed_38197510",{"id":953,"title":10043,"authors":10044,"journal":1419,"year":3074,"citationType":167,"doi":10045},"Prolonged stimulation of growth hormone (GH) and insulin-like growth factor I secretion by CJC-1295, a long-acting analog of GH-releasing hormone, in healthy adults.","Teichman SL, Neale A, Lawrence B, Gagnon C, Castaigne JP, Frohman LA","10.1210/jc.2005-1536",{"id":956,"title":10047,"authors":10048,"journal":10049,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":10050},"Netnography of Female Use of the Synthetic Growth Hormone CJC-1295: Pulses and Potions.","Van Hout MC, Hearne E","Substance use & misuse","10.3109/10826084.2015.1082595",{"id":959,"title":10052,"authors":10053,"journal":3452,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":10054},"A method for confirming CJC-1295 abuse in equine plasma samples by LC-MS/MS.","Timms M, Ganio K, Steel R","10.1002/dta.2599",{"id":962,"title":10056,"authors":10057,"journal":3452,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":10058},"An immuno polymerase chain reaction screen for the detection of CJC-1295 and other growth-hormone-releasing hormone analogs in equine plasma.","Timms M, Ganio K, Forbes G, Bailey S, Steel R","10.1002/dta.2554",{"id":964,"title":10060,"authors":10061,"journal":3452,"year":1105,"citationType":167,"doi":10062},"Identification of CJC-1295, a growth-hormone-releasing peptide, in an unknown pharmaceutical preparation.","Henninge J, Pepaj M, Hullstein I, Hemmersbach P","10.1002/dta.233",{"id":967,"title":10064,"authors":10065,"journal":7190,"year":3074,"citationType":167,"doi":10066},"Once-daily administration of CJC-1295, a long-acting growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) analog, normalizes growth in the GHRH knockout mouse.","Alba M, Fintini D, Sagazio A, Lawrence B, Castaigne JP, Frohman LA, Salvatori R","10.1152/ajpendo.00201.2006",{"id":4598,"title":10068,"authors":10069,"journal":1419,"year":3074,"citationType":167,"doi":10070},"Pulsatile secretion of growth hormone (GH) persists during continuous stimulation by CJC-1295, a long-acting GH-releasing hormone analog.","Ionescu M, Frohman LA","10.1210/jc.2006-1702",{"id":4601,"title":10072,"authors":10073,"journal":3189,"year":243,"citationType":167,"doi":10074},"Human growth hormone-releasing factor (hGRF)1-29-albumin bioconjugates activate the GRF receptor on the anterior pituitary in rats: identification of CJC-1295 as a long-lasting GRF analog.","Jetté L, Léger R, Thibaudeau K, Benquet C, Robitaille M, Pellerin I, Paradis V, van Wyk P, Pham K, Bridon DP","10.1210/en.2004-1286",{"id":4604,"title":10076,"authors":10077,"journal":1048,"year":1384,"citationType":167,"doi":10078},"Activation of the GH/IGF-1 axis by CJC-1295, a long-acting GHRH analog, results in serum protein profile changes in normal adult subjects.","Sackmann-Sala L, Ding J, Frohman LA, Kopchick JJ","10.1016/j.ghir.2009.03.001",{"id":4606,"title":10080,"authors":10081,"journal":3452,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":10082},"Advances in the detection of growth hormone releasing hormone synthetic analogs.","Memdouh S, Gavrilović I, Ng K, Cowan D, Abbate V","10.1002/dta.3183",{"id":4608,"title":10084,"authors":10085,"journal":10086,"year":1196,"citationType":167,"doi":10087},"Immunoaffinity purification of peptide hormones prior to liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry in doping controls.","Thomas A, Schänzer W, Delahaut P, Thevis M","Methods (San Diego, Calif.)","10.1016/j.ymeth.2011.08.009",{"id":4611,"title":10089,"authors":10090,"journal":10091,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":10092},"Cationic exchange SPE combined with triple quadrupole UHPLC-MS/MS for detection of GHRHs in urine samples.","Cristea CD, Radu M, Toboc A, Stan C, David V","Analytical biochemistry","10.1016/j.ab.2023.115336",{"id":4078,"title":10094,"authors":10095,"journal":7607,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":10096},"Qualitative identification of growth hormone-releasing hormones in human plasma by means of immunoaffinity purification and LC-HRMS/MS.","Knoop A, Thomas A, Fichant E, Delahaut P, Schänzer W, Thevis M","10.1007/s00216-016-9377-3",{"id":4080,"title":10098,"authors":10099,"journal":6419,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":10100},"An antibody-free, ultrafiltration-based assay for the detection of growth hormone-releasing hormones in urine at low pg/mL concentrations using nanoLC-HRMS/MS.","Coppieters G, Deventer K, Polet M, Van Eenoo P, Judák P","10.1016/j.jpba.2022.114726",{"id":4082,"title":10102,"authors":10103,"journal":3452,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":10104},"Expanded test method for peptides >2 kDa employing immunoaffinity purification and LC-HRMS/MS.","Thomas A, Walpurgis K, Tretzel L, Brinkkötter P, Fichant E, Delahaut P, Schänzer W, Thevis M","10.1002/dta.1868",{"id":4085,"title":10106,"authors":10107,"journal":10108,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":10109},"Probing for peptidic drugs (2-10 kDa) in doping control blood samples.","Thomas A, Thilmany S, Hofmann A, Thevis M","Analytical science advances","10.1002/ansa.202200027",{"id":4088,"title":10111,"authors":10112,"journal":10113,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":10114},"The study of doping market: How to produce intelligence from Internet forums.","Pineau T, Schopfer A, Grossrieder L, Broséus J, Esseiva P, Rossy Q","Forensic science international","10.1016/j.forsciint.2016.09.017",{"id":4090,"title":3461,"authors":3462,"journal":3463,"year":1152,"citationType":167,"doi":3464},{"id":2317,"title":10117,"authors":10118,"journal":10119,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":10120},"Chromatographic-mass spectrometric analysis of peptidic analytes (2-10 kDa) in doping control urine samples.","Thomas A, Walpurgis K, Thevis M","Journal of mass spectrometry : JMS","10.1002/jms.4996",{"id":2319,"title":10122,"authors":10123,"journal":10124,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":10125},"Comparison of magnetic bead surface functionalities for the immunopurification of growth hormone-releasing hormones prior to liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry.","Pont L, Alechaga É, Terrero A, Monfort N, Ventura R","Journal of chromatography. A","10.1016/j.chroma.2020.461548",{"id":2295,"title":10127,"authors":10128,"journal":10129,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":10130},"Early detection of cannabinoids in biological samples based on their affinity interaction with the growth hormone secretagogue receptor.","Danila GM, Puiu M, Zamfir LG, Bala C","Talanta","10.1016/j.talanta.2021.122905",{"id":2322,"title":10132,"authors":10133,"journal":1481,"year":1384,"citationType":167,"doi":10134},"Neuronal M3 muscarinic acetylcholine receptors are essential for somatotroph proliferation and normal somatic growth.","Gautam D, Jeon J, Starost MF, Han SJ, Hamdan FF, Cui Y, Parlow AF, Gavrilova O, Szalayova I, Mezey E, Wess J","10.1073/pnas.0900977106",{"id":2297,"title":10136,"authors":10137,"journal":6419,"year":1624,"citationType":167,"doi":10138},"Analysis of growth hormone releasing hormone and its analogs in urine using nano liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole/orbitrap mass spectrometry.","Uçaktürk E, Nemutlu E","10.1016/j.jpba.2025.117207",{"id":2572,"title":10140,"authors":10141,"journal":7607,"year":260,"citationType":167,"doi":10142},"Doping control analysis of seven bioactive peptides in horse plasma by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry.","Kwok WH, Ho EN, Lau MY, Leung GN, Wong AS, Wan TS","10.1007/s00216-012-6697-9",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":1021,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":10145},"2026-01-05T22:12:01.438834","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/cjc-1295.webp","3647.19","C165H269N47O46","56841945","Maleimidopropionyl","~30 min (no DAC) / 6-8 days (DAC)","863288-34-0","CC[C@H](C)[C@@H](C(=O)N[C@@H](CC1=CC=CC=C1)C(=O)N[C@@H]([C@@H](C)O)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCC(=O)N)C(=O)N[C@@H](CO)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC2=CC=C(C=C2)O)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCNC(=N)N)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCCN)C(=O)N[C@@H](C(C)C)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(C)C)C(=O)N[C@@H](C)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCC(=O)N)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(C)C)C(=O)N[C@@H](CO)C(=O)N[C@@H](C)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCNC(=N)N)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCCN)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(C)C)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(C)C)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCC(=O)N)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(=O)O)C(=O)N[C@@H]([C@@H](C)CC)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(C)C)C(=O)N[C@@H](CO)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCNC(=N)N)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCCNC(=O)CCN3C(=O)C=CC3=O)C(=O)N)NC(=O)[C@H](C)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@@H](C)NC(=O)[C@H](CC4=CC=C(C=C4)O)N",[10155,10159,10163,10166],{"name":10156,"dose":10157,"frequency":10158,"route":311},"Anti-Aging/Wellness","100mcg","2x daily (morning and bedtime)",{"name":10160,"dose":10161,"frequency":10162,"route":311},"Body Composition","100-150mcg","3x daily (morning, post-workout, bedtime)",{"name":10164,"dose":6000,"frequency":10165,"route":311},"Maximum GH Release","2-3x daily with GHRP",{"name":10167,"dose":5810,"frequency":10168,"route":311},"Sleep Enhancement","Once at bedtime",[10170,10000,10171,10172,10173],"CJC-1295 with DAC","DAC:GRF","Tethered GHRH","GHRH analog",[10175,10176,10177,10178],"Growth hormone secretagogue research","GH deficiency","IGF-1 elevation","Pulsatile GH physiology",{"human":10180,"animal":10181,"inVitro":10182,"uncertain":10183},"Two randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind, ascending-dose trials in healthy adults (ages 21-61) showed single subcutaneous CJC-1295 injections produced dose-dependent 2- to 10-fold increases in mean plasma GH for 6 or more days and 1.5- to 3-fold increases in IGF-1 for 9-11 days; with multiple doses, IGF-1 stayed above baseline up to 28 days. A follow-up study confirmed pulsatile GH secretion persists during continuous CJC-1295 stimulation, with markedly increased basal GH.","CJC-1295 stimulated GH and IGF-1 secretion in several animal species and enhanced growth in rats; preclinical work underpinned the long-acting GHRH approach.","The DAC (drug affinity complex) technology was designed so the peptide binds covalently to endogenous albumin after injection, prolonging its circulating half-life.","There is no approved therapeutic indication, no long-term safety data from chronic use, and no clinical trials for performance/anti-aging endpoints. A non-DAC 'modified GRF 1-29' variant is frequently conflated with CJC-1295 DAC in research-use markets.",[10185,10189],{"finding":10186,"source":10187,"year":3074,"link":10188,"evidenceLevel":46},"In healthy adults, single SC doses of CJC-1295 increased GH 2-10x for ≥6 days and IGF-1 1.5-3x for 9-11 days; estimated half-life was 5.8-8.1 days. Multiple doses kept IGF-1 elevated for up to 28 days with no serious adverse reactions.","Randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind, ascending-dose trial (J Clin Endocrinol Metab)","https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2005-1536",{"finding":10190,"source":10191,"year":3074,"link":10192,"evidenceLevel":46},"Overnight 20-min sampling showed GH pulsatility is preserved during continuous CJC-1295 stimulation, with basal (trough) GH increased 7.5-fold and mean GH and IGF-1 increased ~45%.","Physiology study in healthy men (J Clin Endocrinol Metab)","https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2006-1702","Human data are limited to small, short-term, single-center healthy-volunteer studies from the early 2000s; no phase 3 trials or approvals followed. Effects on body composition, recovery, or aging outcomes have not been clinically validated. The peptide is widely sold for research/off-label use without regulatory oversight, and long-term safety is unknown.","CJC-1295 is a GHRH analog with a DAC moiety that binds endogenous albumin after injection, giving an estimated elimination half-life of 5.8-8.1 days (albumin-tethered form). Subcutaneous administration of single doses 30-150 mcg/kg raised GH and IGF-1 dose-dependently; pulsatile GH secretion was preserved. A separate non-DAC 'modified GRF 1-29' product has a much shorter half-life and is a distinct compound.",[10196,10199,10202],{"question":10197,"answer":10198},"What does 'DAC' mean in CJC-1295?","DAC (drug affinity complex) is a moiety that makes the peptide bind to albumin after injection, extending its half-life to roughly 6-8 days versus minutes for plain GHRH.",{"question":10200,"answer":10201},"Is CJC-1295 FDA approved?","No. It was studied in healthy volunteers in the 2000s but has no approved indication anywhere.",{"question":10203,"answer":10204},"Are CJC-1295 with DAC and modified GRF 1-29 the same?","No. CJC-1295 with DAC is long-acting (albumin-bound, ~6-8 day half-life); 'modified GRF 1-29' (sometimes sold as CJC-1295 without DAC) is a shorter-acting GHRH analog.",{"id":8063,"name":10206,"slug":10207,"description":10208,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":28,"views":5,"researchStatus":10209,"peptideBenefits":10210,"benefits":10223,"peptideSideEffects":10230,"sideEffects":10239,"dosage":10243,"mechanism":10244,"safetyNote":10245,"athleteWarning":10246,"chemicalMakeup":10247,"citations":10248,"research":10388,"statsCache":10389,"imageUrl":10391,"molecularWeight":10392,"sequence":10393,"halfLife":2228,"administrationRoute":10394,"totalMentions":6502,"dataCompleteness":1916,"hasResearchData":28,"protocols":10395,"aliases":10403,"researchAreas":10408,"evidence":10413,"keyStudies":10418,"limitations":10430,"pharmacology":10431,"faqs":10432,"lastReviewed":359},"Follistatin","follistatin","Follistatin is a naturally occurring glycoprotein that functions as a potent inhibitor of myostatin and other members of the transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) superfamily including activins. By neutralizing myostatin—the primary negative regulator of skeletal muscle growth—follistatin effectively removes the biological brake on muscle development. Research demonstrates that follistatin overexpression or administration leads to significant increases in muscle mass and strength in animal models. The protein also influences reproductive physiology, inflammation, and metabolic processes through its effects on activins. Different follistatin isoforms (FS288, FS303, FS315) have varying tissue distributions and binding characteristics. Gene therapy approaches using follistatin have entered clinical trials for muscular dystrophies, showing improved muscle function and ambulation. Research continues exploring follistatin's potential for muscle wasting conditions, sarcopenia, and age-related muscle loss. The protein's effects extend beyond muscle to include roles in wound healing and fibrosis modulation.","Research compound - Myostatin inhibitor",[10211,10213,10215,10217,10219,10221],{"id":4119,"benefit":10212,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Muscle growth",{"id":4121,"benefit":10214,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Strength enhancement",{"id":4363,"benefit":10216,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Myostatin inhibition",{"id":4366,"benefit":10218,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Lean mass increase",{"id":6891,"benefit":10220,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Athletic performance",{"id":6894,"benefit":10222,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Body composition",[10224,10225,10226,10227,10228,10229],{"id":4119,"benefit":10212,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":4121,"benefit":10214,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":4363,"benefit":10216,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":4366,"benefit":10218,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":6891,"benefit":10220,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":6894,"benefit":10222,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},[10231,10234,10237],{"id":10232,"sideEffect":10233,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},158,"Unknown long-term effects in humans",{"id":10235,"sideEffect":10236,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},159,"Potential muscle/tendon imbalance",{"id":8835,"sideEffect":10238,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Limited safety data",[10240,10241,10242],{"id":10232,"sideEffect":10233,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":10235,"sideEffect":10236,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":8835,"sideEffect":10238,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Variable Protocol-dependent","Myostatin inhibitor for muscle growth","Research compound only. Very limited human safety data available.","WADA BANNED - Prohibited in competitive sports as myostatin inhibitor","Glycoprotein, myostatin antagonist (315-344 amino acids depending on isoform)",[10249,10254,10259,10265,10270,10274,10279,10284,10289,10293,10298,10303,10309,10315,10321,10326,10331,10336,10342,10348,10352,10357,10361,10366,10371,10377,10382],{"id":4337,"title":10250,"authors":155,"journal":10251,"year":157,"citationType":158,"doi":10252,"researchPaperId":10253},"Follistatin Gene Therapy for Muscle Disorders","Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism","10.1111/dom.70313","pubmed_41287185",{"id":361,"title":10255,"authors":155,"journal":10256,"year":157,"citationType":158,"doi":10257,"researchPaperId":10258},"Follistatin and Myostatin Inhibition: Therapeutic Applications","Molecular Medicine","10.1186/s10020-025-01393-1","pubmed_41272451",{"id":10260,"title":10261,"authors":10262,"journal":10263,"year":2522,"citationType":167,"doi":10264},521,"Follistatin.","Patel K","The international journal of biochemistry & cell biology","10.1016/s1357-2725(98)00064-8",{"id":3310,"title":10266,"authors":10267,"journal":10268,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":10269},"Follistatin and follistatin-like 3 in metabolic disorders.","Bielka W, Przezak A, Pawlik A","Prostaglandins & other lipid mediators","10.1016/j.prostaglandins.2023.106785",{"id":3315,"title":10271,"authors":10272,"journal":5625,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":10273},"Circulating follistatin in relation to energy metabolism.","Hansen JS, Plomgaard P","10.1016/j.mce.2016.06.002",{"id":3742,"title":10275,"authors":10276,"journal":10277,"year":2522,"citationType":167,"doi":10278},"Follistatin: a multifunctional regulatory protein.","Phillips DJ, de Kretser DM","Frontiers in neuroendocrinology","10.1006/frne.1998.0169",{"id":619,"title":10280,"authors":10281,"journal":10282,"year":2522,"citationType":167,"doi":10283},"Activin/follistatin and atherosclerosis--a review.","Kozaki K, Ouchi Y","Journal of atherosclerosis and thrombosis","10.5551/jat1994.5.36",{"id":623,"title":10285,"authors":10286,"journal":10287,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":10288},"The emerging role of follistatin under stresses and its implications in diseases.","Zhang L, Liu K, Han B, Xu Z, Gao X","Gene","10.1016/j.gene.2017.10.017",{"id":626,"title":10290,"authors":10291,"journal":5557,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":10292},"The activin-follistatin system: Key regulator of kidney development, regeneration, inflammation, and fibrosis.","Nagayama I, Takei Y, Takahashi S, Okada M, Maeshima A","10.1016/j.cytogfr.2024.11.004",{"id":629,"title":10294,"authors":10295,"journal":10296,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":10297},"[Research progress of follistatin-related proteins in digestive system tumors].","Wu JN, Jiang YZ","Zhonghua yu fang yi xue za zhi [Chinese journal of preventive medicine]","10.3760/cma.j.cn112150-20240529-00436",{"id":10299,"title":10300,"authors":10301,"journal":5625,"year":249,"citationType":167,"doi":10302},529,"Activin and follistatin in female reproduction.","Muttukrishna S, Tannetta D, Groome N, Sargent I","10.1016/j.mce.2004.02.012",{"id":10304,"title":10305,"authors":10306,"journal":10307,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":10308},530,"Follistatin treatment modifies DNA methylation of the CDX2 gene in bovine preimplantation embryos.","Ashry M, Rajput SK, Folger JK, Yang C, Knott JG, Smith GW","Molecular reproduction and development","10.1002/mrd.23409",{"id":10310,"title":10311,"authors":10312,"journal":10313,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":10314},531,"The effects of resistance training on myostatin and follistatin in adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis.","Khalafi M, Aria B, Symonds ME, Rosenkranz SK","Physiology & behavior","10.1016/j.physbeh.2023.114272",{"id":10316,"title":10317,"authors":10318,"journal":10319,"year":1105,"citationType":167,"doi":10320},532,"Follistatin as a potent regulator of bone metabolism.","Gajos-Michniewicz A, Piastowska AW, Russell JA, Ochedalski T","Biomarkers : biochemical indicators of exposure, response, and susceptibility to chemicals","10.3109/1354750X.2010.495786",{"id":10322,"title":10323,"authors":10324,"journal":3452,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":10325},533,"Detection of black market follistatin 344.","Reichel C, Gmeiner G, Thevis M","10.1002/dta.2741",{"id":10327,"title":10328,"authors":10329,"journal":3189,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":10330},534,"Follistatin Forms a Stable Complex With Inhibin A That Does Not Interfere With Activin A Antagonism.","Kappes EC, Kattamuri C, Czepnik M, Yarawsky AE, Brûlé E, Wang Y, Ongaro L, Herr AB, Walton KL, Bernard DJ, Thompson TB","10.1210/endocr/bqad017",{"id":10332,"title":10333,"authors":10334,"journal":1151,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":10335},535,"Low follistatin level is a causal risk factor for spontaneous abortion: a two-sample mendelian randomization study.","Gong C, Yang W, Liu X, Li X, Wang Y, Tian C","10.3389/fendo.2023.1255591",{"id":10337,"title":10338,"authors":10339,"journal":10340,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":10341},536,"Exogenous follistatin administration ameliorates cisplatin-induced acute kidney injury through anti-inflammation and anti-apoptosis effects.","Koken E, Oyar EO, Uyanikgil Y, Pazarlar BA, Bilister C, Aksun S, Yigitturk G, Koken EC","Bratislavske lekarske listy","10.4149/BLL_2020_020",{"id":10343,"title":10344,"authors":10345,"journal":10346,"year":260,"citationType":167,"doi":10347},537,"Follistatin as potential therapeutic target in prostate cancer.","Sepporta MV, Tumminello FM, Flandina C, Crescimanno M, Giammanco M, La Guardia M, di Majo D, Leto G","Targeted oncology","10.1007/s11523-013-0268-7",{"id":9963,"title":10349,"authors":10350,"journal":1006,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":10351},"Follistatin impacts Tumor Angiogenesis and Outcome in Thymic Epithelial Tumors.","Janik S, Bekos C, Hacker P, Raunegger T, Schiefer AI, Müllauer L, Veraar C, Dome B, Klepetko W, Ankersmit HJ, Moser B","10.1038/s41598-019-53671-8",{"id":9966,"title":10353,"authors":10354,"journal":10355,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":10356},"Clinical and Therapeutic Implications of Follistatin in Solid Tumours.","Shi L, Resaul J, Owen S, Ye L, Jiang WG","Cancer genomics & proteomics","10.21873/cgp.20005",{"id":9969,"title":10358,"authors":10359,"journal":1151,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":10360},"Circulating follistatin concentrations in adolescent PCOS: Divergent effects of randomized treatments.","Díaz M, de Zegher F, Ibáñez L","10.3389/fendo.2023.1125569",{"id":9972,"title":10362,"authors":10363,"journal":10364,"year":173,"citationType":167,"doi":10365},"Regulation of ovarian function by the TGF-beta superfamily and follistatin.","Lin SY, Morrison JR, Phillips DJ, de Kretser DM","Reproduction (Cambridge, England)","10.1530/rep.0.1260133",{"id":10367,"title":10368,"authors":10369,"journal":5625,"year":249,"citationType":167,"doi":10370},542,"Differential actions of follistatin and follistatin-like 3.","Schneyer A, Sidis Y, Xia Y, Saito S, del Re E, Lin HY, Keutmann H","10.1016/j.mce.2004.02.009",{"id":10372,"title":10373,"authors":10374,"journal":10375,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":10376},543,"Follistatin expression in the central nervous system of the adult rat.","Ogawa C, Mikawa S, Yamashita K, Hayashi Y, Masumoto K, Katou F, Sato K","Journal of chemical neuroanatomy","10.1016/j.jchemneu.2020.101753",{"id":10378,"title":10379,"authors":10380,"journal":1390,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":10381},544,"Follistatin-induced muscle hypertrophy in aged mice improves neuromuscular junction innervation and function.","Iyer CC, Chugh D, Bobbili PJ, Iii AJB, Crum AE, Yi AF, Kaspar BK, Meyer KC, Burghes AHM, Arnold WD","10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2021.03.005",{"id":10383,"title":10384,"authors":10385,"journal":10386,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":10387},545,"Maternal Serum Activin A, Inhibin A and Follistatin-Related Proteins across Preeclampsia: Insights into Their Role in Pathogenesis and Prediction.","Barrero JA, Villamil-Camargo LM, Imaz JN, Arciniegas-Villa K, Rubio-Romero JA","Journal of mother and child","10.34763/jmotherandchild.20232701.d-23-00002",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":6502,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":10390},"2026-01-05T22:12:09.874652","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/follistatin.webp","36000.00","MVRARHQPGGLCLLLLLLCQFMEDRSAQAGNCWLRQAKNGRCQVLYKTELSKEECCSTGRLSTSWTEEDVNDNTLFKWMIFNGGAPNCIPCKETCENVDCGPGKKCRMNKKNKPRCVCAPDCSNITWKGPVCGLDGKTYRNECALLKARCKEQPELEVQYQGRCKKTCRDVFCPGSSTCVVDQTNNAYCVTCNRICPEPASSEQYLCGNDGVTYSSACHLRKATCLLGRSIGLAYEGKCIKAKSCEDIQCTGGKKCLWDFKVGRGRCSLCDELCPDSKSDEPVCASDNATYASECAMKEAACSSGVLLEVKHSGSCNSISEDTEEEEEDEDQDYSFPISSILEW","Gene therapy",[10396,10399],{"name":10397,"dose":10398,"frequency":1801,"route":555},"Research Protocol (Anecdotal)","100 mcg",{"name":10400,"dose":10401,"frequency":10402,"route":555},"Higher Dose Protocol (Anecdotal)","200 mcg","Once daily (max recommended)",[10404,10405,10406,10407,9315],"FST","Follistatin-344","FS344","Activin-binding protein",[10409,10410,10411,7716,10412],"Muscular dystrophy gene therapy","Muscle growth / myostatin inhibition","Sporadic inclusion body myositis","Fibrosis modulation",{"human":10414,"animal":10415,"inVitro":10416,"uncertain":10417},"A phase 1/2a trial of AAV1-delivered follistatin (FS344) injected intramuscularly into the quadriceps of 6 Becker muscular dystrophy patients reported increased muscle strength on some measures; two cohort-1 patients improved 6-minute walk distance by 58 m and 125 m. A follow-up gene therapy trial in sporadic inclusion body myositis (9 patients) reported improved functional outcomes including 6-minute walk test.","Extensive preclinical studies showed AAV-delivered follistatin increases muscle strength and mass in mice, and follistatin overexpression blocks myostatin/activin signaling that normally limits muscle growth.","Follistatin binds and neutralizes myostatin and activins of the TGF-beta superfamily; FS344 (the alternatively spliced isoform used in the clinic) was chosen to avoid off-target binding sites.","Follistatin use as an injected peptide for physique or anti-aging purposes has no clinical evidence; the only human data come from gene-therapy delivery in muscle disease. Long-term safety of chronic follistatin exposure is unknown, and it is banned by WADA.",[10419,10423,10427],{"finding":10420,"source":10421,"year":1516,"link":10422,"evidenceLevel":46},"AAV1.CMV.FS344 injected bilaterally into quadriceps of 6 Becker muscular dystrophy patients was safe; two cohort-1 patients improved 6-minute walk distance by 58 m and 125 m with other strength measures also improving.","Phase 1/2a gene therapy clinical trial (Molecular Therapy)","https://doi.org/10.1038/mt.2014.200",{"finding":10424,"source":10425,"year":498,"link":10426,"evidenceLevel":46},"AAV1-follistatin gene therapy in 9 patients with sporadic inclusion body myositis improved functional outcomes, including 6-minute walk test performance.","Open-label gene therapy trial (Molecular Therapy)","https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ymthe.2017.02.015",{"finding":10428,"source":10429,"year":1516,"link":10422,"evidenceLevel":50},"Preclinical studies demonstrated AAV-delivered follistatin inhibits myostatin signaling and increases muscle strength in animal models of muscular dystrophy.","Preclinical studies (referenced in the phase 1/2a trial report)","The only human evidence is from small, open-label, non-randomized gene-therapy trials in rare muscle diseases; effects were variable and no randomized placebo-controlled trial exists. There is no evidence supporting follistatin peptide injections for muscle gain in healthy people. WADA bans follistatin in sport.","Follistatin is a naturally occurring glycoprotein that binds and neutralizes myostatin and activins (TGF-beta superfamily). In clinical gene-therapy trials, the FS344 isoform was delivered via AAV1 by direct intramuscular injection into the quadriceps (dose 3x10^11 vg/kg/leg in cohort 1). The peptide itself has a short plasma half-life, which is why trials used gene delivery rather than peptide injections.",[10433,10436,10439],{"question":10434,"answer":10435},"Is follistatin an approved treatment for muscular dystrophy?","No. Follistatin gene therapy has been tested in small phase 1/2a trials in Becker muscular dystrophy and sporadic inclusion body myositis, but it is not approved by any regulator.",{"question":10437,"answer":10438},"Does injected follistatin build muscle in healthy people?","There is no published clinical evidence for follistatin peptide injections increasing muscle mass in healthy people; the human data come from AAV gene therapy in muscle disease patients.",{"question":10440,"answer":10441},"Why is follistatin banned in sport?","WADA prohibits follistatin because it is a potent myostatin inhibitor and is viewed as a gene-doping / performance-enhancing agent.",{"id":6627,"name":10443,"slug":10444,"description":10445,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":28,"views":6334,"shortDescription":10446,"researchStatus":10447,"peptideBenefits":10448,"benefits":10476,"peptideSideEffects":10488,"sideEffects":10508,"dosage":10519,"mechanism":10520,"safetyNote":148,"athleteWarning":10521,"chemicalMakeup":10522,"citations":10523,"research":10771,"statsCache":10772,"imageUrl":10774,"molecularWeight":10775,"molecularFormula":10776,"pubchemId":10777,"sequence":10778,"halfLife":10779,"administrationRoute":540,"casNumber":10780,"smiles":10781,"totalMentions":2222,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"aliases":10782,"researchAreas":10788,"evidence":10793,"keyStudies":10798,"limitations":10807,"pharmacology":10808,"faqs":10809,"lastReviewed":359},"GHRP-2","ghrp-2","GHRP-2 (Growth Hormone Releasing Peptide-2, Pralmorelin) is a synthetic hexapeptide that stimulates growth hormone secretion through activation of the ghrelin/growth hormone secretagogue receptor (GHS-R1a). Unlike growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH), GHRP-2 acts through an independent pathway and produces strong, reliable GH pulses. Research demonstrates GHRP-2 increases appetite through ghrelin-like effects, making it useful when appetite stimulation is desired but potentially problematic for weight management applications. The peptide also stimulates mild increases in prolactin and cortisol compared to more selective secretagogues like Ipamorelin. Studies show synergistic effects when combined with GHRH analogs, producing greater GH release than either peptide alone. GHRP-2 has been investigated for diagnostic use in evaluating pituitary GH reserve and therapeutic applications in growth hormone deficiency states. The peptide requires subcutaneous injection multiple times daily due to its short half-life. Research continues into applications for muscle wasting, wound healing, and age-related GH decline.","Growth hormone releasing peptide for GH stimulation and appetite","Research compound - Growth hormone agonist",[10449,10451,10454,10457,10458,10459,10462,10465,10468,10470,10473],{"id":5052,"benefit":10450,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Growth hormone stimulation",{"id":10452,"benefit":10453,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},82,"Fat reduction",{"id":10455,"benefit":10456,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},84,"Improved strength",{"id":8984,"benefit":10212,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":7490,"benefit":9952,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":10460,"benefit":10461,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},85,"Better sleep",{"id":8679,"benefit":10463,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":10464,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},"GHD Diagnosis: 83% sensitivity, 88% specificity","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35795807/",{"id":8683,"benefit":10466,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":10467,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},"Short Stature: Height velocity 3.7→6.1 cm/year intranasal","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9390009/",{"id":10299,"benefit":10469,"benefitCategory":60,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},"Significant IGF-1 elevation (159.5→239.0 ng/mL in clinical study)",{"id":10304,"benefit":10471,"benefitCategory":10472,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},"Lean body mass improvement","body composition",{"id":10310,"benefit":10474,"benefitCategory":10475,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},"GH deficiency diagnosis utility","diagnostic",[10477,10478,10479,10480,10481,10482,10483,10484,10485,10486,10487],{"id":5052,"benefit":10450,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":10452,"benefit":10453,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":10455,"benefit":10456,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":8984,"benefit":10212,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":7490,"benefit":9952,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":10460,"benefit":10461,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":8679,"benefit":10463,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":10464,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":8683,"benefit":10466,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":10467,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":10299,"benefit":10469,"benefitCategory":60,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":10304,"benefit":10471,"benefitCategory":10472,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":10310,"benefit":10474,"benefitCategory":10475,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},[10489,10490,10492,10495,10498,10500,10502,10503,10505,10507],{"id":3941,"sideEffect":9605,"description":23,"severity":2597,"frequency":2598,"source":24,"sourceType":24,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":23,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":3947,"sideEffect":10491,"description":23,"severity":2597,"frequency":2598,"source":24,"sourceType":24,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":23,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Transient cortisol/ACTH elevation",{"id":3952,"sideEffect":10493,"description":23,"severity":10494,"frequency":2602,"source":24,"sourceType":24,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":23,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Potential glucose metabolism effects","moderate",{"id":1242,"sideEffect":10496,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":23,"source":44,"sourceType":44,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":10497,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"ACTH/Cortisol elevation","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7617137/",{"id":1244,"sideEffect":5483,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":23,"source":44,"sourceType":44,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":10499,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10528131/",{"id":1928,"sideEffect":10501,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Strong hunger",{"id":2640,"sideEffect":10005,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":2647,"sideEffect":10504,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Cortisol/prolactin rise",{"id":4337,"sideEffect":10506,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Rare dizziness",{"id":252,"sideEffect":1878,"description":23,"severity":1879,"frequency":5476,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":7820,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":10443,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":6345,"management":6007,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},[10509,10510,10511,10512,10513,10514,10515,10516,10517,10518],{"id":3941,"sideEffect":9605,"description":23,"severity":2597,"frequency":2598,"source":24,"sourceType":24,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":23,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":3947,"sideEffect":10491,"description":23,"severity":2597,"frequency":2598,"source":24,"sourceType":24,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":23,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":3952,"sideEffect":10493,"description":23,"severity":10494,"frequency":2602,"source":24,"sourceType":24,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":23,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":1242,"sideEffect":10496,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":23,"source":44,"sourceType":44,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":10497,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":1244,"sideEffect":5483,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":23,"source":44,"sourceType":44,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":10499,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":1928,"sideEffect":10501,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":2640,"sideEffect":10005,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":2647,"sideEffect":10504,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":4337,"sideEffect":10506,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":252,"sideEffect":1878,"description":23,"severity":1879,"frequency":5476,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":7820,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":10443,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":6345,"management":6007,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},"100-300 mcg 2-3x/day","Growth hormone releasing peptide with hunger stimulation","WADA BANNED - Prohibited in competitive sports as growth hormone releasing peptide","Hexapeptide D-Ala-D-β-Nal-Ala-Trp-D-Phe-Lys-NH₂",[10524,10528,10532,10536,10540,10546,10551,10556,10562,10566,10570,10574,10578,10582,10587,10592,10597,10603,10608,10613,10617,10621,10627,10633,10638,10643,10648,10654,10659,10665,10670,10675,10680,10685,10686,10691,10696,10702,10707,10713,10718,10722,10727,10733,10738,10742,10748,10753,10758,10763,10767],{"id":6334,"title":10525,"authors":155,"journal":3059,"year":157,"citationType":158,"doi":10526,"researchPaperId":10527},"GHRP-2 Pharmacology and Clinical Applications","10.1016/j.peptides.2025.171432","pubmed_40677481",{"id":6337,"title":10529,"authors":155,"journal":7022,"year":458,"citationType":1024,"doi":10530,"researchPaperId":10531},"Pralmorelin (GHRP-2) in GH Deficiency Diagnosis","10.1007/s12020-024-04089-8","pubmed_39672241",{"id":598,"title":10533,"authors":10534,"journal":1990,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":10535},"Association between overweight and growth hormone secretion in patients with non-functioning pituitary tumors.","Seki Y, Ichihara A","10.1371/journal.pone.0267324",{"id":4074,"title":10537,"authors":6526,"journal":10538,"year":249,"citationType":167,"doi":10539},"Pralmorelin: GHRP 2, GPA 748, growth hormone-releasing peptide 2, KP-102 D, KP-102 LN, KP-102D, KP-102LN.","Drugs in R&D","10.2165/00126839-200405040-00011",{"id":10541,"title":10542,"authors":10543,"journal":10544,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":10545},602,"The Safety and Efficacy of Growth Hormone Secretagogues.","Sigalos JT, Pastuszak AW","Sexual medicine reviews","10.1016/j.sxmr.2017.02.004",{"id":10547,"title":10548,"authors":10549,"journal":3452,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":10550},603,"Detection of GHRP-2 and GHRP-6 in urine samples from athletes.","Cox HD, Hughes CM, Eichner D","10.1002/dta.1791",{"id":10552,"title":10553,"authors":10554,"journal":1419,"year":243,"citationType":167,"doi":10555},604,"Growth hormone releasing peptide-2 (GHRP-2), like ghrelin, increases food intake in healthy men.","Laferrère B, Abraham C, Russell CD, Bowers CY","10.1210/jc.2004-1719",{"id":10557,"title":10558,"authors":10559,"journal":10560,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":10561},605,"Laparoscopic Sleeve Gastrectomy Resolves Low GHRP-2-Stimulated Growth Hormone Levels in Obese Patients.","Ohara E, Tokuyama H, Kitamoto T, Kitahara A, Hayashi A, Hayashi H, Takemoto M, Yokote K","Obesity surgery","10.1007/s11695-017-2769-4",{"id":6297,"title":10563,"authors":10564,"journal":1071,"year":229,"citationType":167,"doi":10565},"GHRP-2, a GHS-R agonist, directly acts on myocytes to attenuate the dexamethasone-induced expressions of muscle-specific ubiquitin ligases, Atrogin-1 and MuRF1.","Yamamoto D, Ikeshita N, Matsubara T, Tasaki H, Herningtyas EH, Toda K, Iida K, Takahashi Y, Kaji H, Chihara K, Okimura Y","10.1016/j.lfs.2007.11.019",{"id":6299,"title":10567,"authors":10568,"journal":3452,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":10569},"Determination of growth hormone releasing peptides metabolites in human urine after nasal administration of GHRP-1, GHRP-2, GHRP-6, Hexarelin, and Ipamorelin.","Semenistaya E, Zvereva I, Thomas A, Thevis M, Krotov G, Rodchenkov G","10.1002/dta.1787",{"id":6301,"title":10571,"authors":10572,"journal":3452,"year":1105,"citationType":167,"doi":10573},"Identification of the growth-hormone-releasing peptide-2 (GHRP-2) in a nutritional supplement.","Thomas A, Kohler M, Mester J, Geyer H, Schänzer W, Petrou M, Thevis M","10.1002/dta.120",{"id":6303,"title":10575,"authors":10576,"journal":10577,"year":750,"citationType":167},"GHRP-2, GHRH and SRIF interrelationships during chronic administration of GHRP-2 to humans.","Bowers CY, Granda-Ayala R","Journal of pediatric endocrinology & metabolism : JPEM",{"id":6305,"title":10579,"authors":10580,"journal":7022,"year":2522,"citationType":167,"doi":10581},"Growth hormone-releasing peptide-2 (GHRP-2) does not act via the human growth hormone-releasing factor receptor in GC cells.","Chen C, Farnworth P, Petersenn S, Musgrave I, Canny BJ, Clarke IJ","10.1385/ENDO:9:1:71",{"id":10583,"title":10584,"authors":10585,"journal":3452,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":10586},611,"On the road of dried blood spot sampling for antidoping tests: Detection of GHRP-2 abuse.","Reverter-Branchat G, Segura J, Pozo OJ","10.1002/dta.2975",{"id":10588,"title":10589,"authors":10590,"journal":3059,"year":723,"citationType":167,"doi":10591},612,"Effects of GHRP-2 and hexarelin, two synthetic GH-releasing peptides, on GH, prolactin, ACTH and cortisol levels in man. Comparison with the effects of GHRH, TRH and hCRH.","Arvat E, di Vito L, Maccagno B, Broglio F, Boghen MF, Deghenghi R, Camanni F, Ghigo E","10.1016/s0196-9781(97)00016-8",{"id":10593,"title":10594,"authors":10595,"journal":3059,"year":1152,"citationType":167,"doi":10596},613,"Ghrelin receptor agonist, GHRP-2, produces antinociceptive effects at the supraspinal level via the opioid receptor in mice.","Zeng P, Li S, Zheng YH, Liu FY, Wang JL, Zhang DL, Wei J","10.1016/j.peptides.2014.02.013",{"id":10598,"title":10599,"authors":10600,"journal":10601,"year":166,"citationType":167,"doi":10602},614,"The combined administration of GH-releasing peptide-2 (GHRP-2), TRH and GnRH to men with prolonged critical illness evokes superior endocrine and metabolic effects compared to treatment with GHRP-2 alone.","Van den Berghe G, Baxter RC, Weekers F, Wouters P, Bowers CY, Iranmanesh A, Veldhuis JD, Bouillon R","Clinical endocrinology","10.1046/j.1365-2265.2002.01255.x",{"id":10604,"title":10605,"authors":10606,"journal":7190,"year":243,"citationType":167,"doi":10607},615,"Anti-inflammatory effect of the ghrelin agonist growth hormone-releasing peptide-2 (GHRP-2) in arthritic rats.","Granado M, Priego T, Martín AI, Villanúa MA, López-Calderón A","10.1152/ajpendo.00196.2004",{"id":10609,"title":10610,"authors":10611,"journal":1990,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":10612},616,"Effects of GHRP-2 and Cysteamine Administration on Growth Performance, Somatotropic Axis Hormone and Muscle Protein Deposition in Yaks (Bos grunniens) with Growth Retardation.","Hu R, Wang Z, Peng Q, Zou H, Wang H, Yu X, Jing X, Wang Y, Cao B, Bao S, Zhang W, Zhao S, Ji H, Kong X, Niu Q","10.1371/journal.pone.0149461",{"id":2595,"title":10614,"authors":10615,"journal":3142,"year":750,"citationType":167,"doi":10616},"The effects of GH-releasing peptide-6 (GHRP-6) and GHRP-2 on intracellular adenosine 3',5'-monophosphate (cAMP) levels and GH secretion in ovine and rat somatotrophs.","Wu D, Chen C, Zhang J, Bowers CY, Clarke IJ","10.1677/joe.0.1480197",{"id":2600,"title":10618,"authors":10619,"journal":4794,"year":1384,"citationType":167,"doi":10620},"GHRP-2 attenuates burn-induced dysfunctions in rodents.","Balasubramaniam A, Joshi R, Friend LA, James JH","10.1007/978-0-387-73657-0_251",{"id":10622,"title":10623,"authors":10624,"journal":10625,"year":249,"citationType":167,"doi":10626},619,"Effect of GHRH and GHRP-2 treatment in vitro on GH secretion and levels of GH, pituitary transcription factor-1, GHRH-receptor, GH-secretagogue-receptor and somatostatin receptor mRNAs in ovine pituitary cells.","Yan M, Hernandez M, Xu R, Chen C","European journal of endocrinology","10.1530/eje.0.1500235",{"id":10628,"title":10629,"authors":10630,"journal":10631,"year":260,"citationType":167,"doi":10632},620,"The arginine and GHRP-2 tests as alternatives to the insulin tolerance test for the diagnosis of adult GH deficiency in Japanese patients: a comparison.","Kinoshita Y, Tominaga A, Usui S, Arita K, Sakoguchi T, Sugiyama K, Kurisu K","Endocrine journal","10.1507/endocrj.ej12-0230",{"id":10634,"title":10635,"authors":10636,"journal":3452,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":10637},621,"Identification of a novel growth hormone releasing peptide (a glycine analogue of GHRP-2) in a seized injection vial.","Popławska M, Błażewicz A","10.1002/dta.2467",{"id":10639,"title":10640,"authors":10641,"journal":3189,"year":166,"citationType":167,"doi":10642},622,"Is GHRH receptor essential to GHRP-2-induced GH secretion in primary cultured rat pituitary cells?","Roh SG, Chen C, Choi KC, Shrestha Y, Sasaki S","10.1210/endo.143.5.8893",{"id":98,"title":10644,"authors":10645,"journal":10646,"year":2522,"citationType":167,"doi":10647},"Effect of growth hormone-releasing peptide-2 (GHRP-2) and GH-releasing hormone (GHRH) on the the cAMP levels and GH release from cultured acromegalic tumours.","Chen C, Pullar M, Loneragan K, Zhang J, Clarke IJ","Journal of neuroendocrinology","10.1046/j.1365-2826.1998.00233.x",{"id":10649,"title":10650,"authors":10651,"journal":10652,"year":836,"citationType":167,"doi":10653},624,"The effects of growth hormone-releasing peptide-2 (GHRP-2) on the release of growth hormone and growth performance in swine.","Phung LT, Inoue H, Nou V, Lee HG, Vega RA, Matsunaga N, Hidaka S, Kuwayama H, Hidari H","Domestic animal endocrinology","10.1016/s0739-7240(00)00050-3",{"id":4627,"title":10655,"authors":10656,"journal":10657,"year":736,"citationType":167,"doi":10658},"Tyr-Ala-Hexarelin, a synthetic octapeptide, possesses the same endocrine activities of Hexarelin and GHRP-2 in humans.","Arvat E, Di Vito L, Lanfranco F, Broglio F, Giordano R, Benso A, Muccioli GP, Deghenghi R, Ghigo E","Journal of endocrinological investigation","10.1007/BF03350886",{"id":10660,"title":10661,"authors":10662,"journal":10663,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":10664},626,"Evaluation of Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis by the GHRP2 Test: Comparison With the Insulin Tolerance Test.","Hayakawa T, Kitamura T, Tamada D, Mukai K, Hayashi R, Takahara M, Otsuki M, Shimomura I","Journal of the Endocrine Society","10.1210/js.2018-00102",{"id":10666,"title":10667,"authors":10668,"journal":10663,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":10669},627,"Clinical Usefulness of the Growth Hormone-Releasing Peptide-2 Test for Hypothalamic-Pituitary Disorder.","Suzuki S, Ruike Y, Ishiwata K, Naito K, Igarashi K, Ishida A, Fujimoto M, Koide H, Horiguchi K, Tatsuno I, Yokote K","10.1210/jendso/bvac088",{"id":6328,"title":10671,"authors":10672,"journal":10673,"year":1152,"citationType":167,"doi":10674},"Adult growth hormone deficiency: current concepts.","Fukuda I, Hizuka N, Muraoka T, Ichihara A","Neurologia medico-chirurgica","10.2176/nmc.ra.2014-0088",{"id":6331,"title":10676,"authors":10677,"journal":10678,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":10679},"Beyond the androgen receptor: the role of growth hormone secretagogues in the modern management of body composition in hypogonadal males.","Sinha DK, Balasubramanian A, Tatem AJ, Rivera-Mirabal J, Yu J, Kovac J, Pastuszak AW, Lipshultz LI","Translational andrology and urology","10.21037/tau.2019.11.30",{"id":10681,"title":10682,"authors":10683,"journal":10625,"year":723,"citationType":167,"doi":10684},630,"Growth hormone-releasing peptides.","Ghigo E, Arvat E, Muccioli G, Camanni F","10.1530/eje.0.1360445",{"id":4115,"title":10323,"authors":10324,"journal":3452,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":10325},{"id":10687,"title":10688,"authors":10689,"journal":10631,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":10690},632,"Postoperative growth hormone dynamics in clinically nonfunctioning pituitary adenoma.","Kobayashi N, Yamaguchi-Okada M, Horiguchi K, Fukuhara N, Nishioka H, Yamada S","10.1507/endocrj.EJ17-0536",{"id":10692,"title":10693,"authors":10694,"journal":10577,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":10695},633,"Robust growth hormone responses to GH-releasing peptide 2 in adolescents.","Onuki T, Hiroaki T, Sawano K, Shibata N, Nyuzuki H, Ogawa Y, Okada M, Sone H, Nagasaki K","10.1515/jpem-2024-0115",{"id":10697,"title":10698,"authors":10699,"journal":10700,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":10701},634,"Pharmacotherapy in Cachexia: A Review of Endocrine Abnormalities and Steroid Pharmacotherapy.","Celichowska M, Miedziaszczyk M, Lacka K","Journal of pain & palliative care pharmacotherapy","10.1080/15360288.2022.2063469",{"id":10703,"title":10704,"authors":10705,"journal":10625,"year":1152,"citationType":167,"doi":10706},635,"Estradiol regulates GH-releasing peptide's interactions with GH-releasing hormone and somatostatin in postmenopausal women.","Norman C, Rollene NL, Erickson D, Miles JM, Bowers CY, Veldhuis JD","10.1530/EJE-13-0733",{"id":10708,"title":10709,"authors":10710,"journal":10711,"year":1396,"citationType":167,"doi":10712},636,"GH releasing peptides--structure and kinetics.","Bowers CY","The Journal of pediatric endocrinology","10.1515/jpem.1993.6.1.21",{"id":7806,"title":10714,"authors":10715,"journal":10716,"year":710,"citationType":167,"doi":10717},"Preparation of monoclonal antibodies for immunoblotting human growth hormone receptor and growth hormone-binding protein.","Saito Y, Yamazaki T, Suzuki K, Ikebuchi H, Asakura A, Ota Y, Sawada J, Terao T","Biological & pharmaceutical bulletin","10.1248/bpb.17.983",{"id":8101,"title":10719,"authors":10720,"journal":2064,"year":836,"citationType":167,"doi":10721},"Growth hormone secretagogue actions on the pituitary gland: multiple receptors for multiple ligands?","Chen C","10.1046/j.1440-1681.2000.03258.x",{"id":10723,"title":10724,"authors":10725,"journal":6391,"year":750,"citationType":167,"doi":10726},639,"Growth hormone-releasing peptides: clinical and basic aspects.","Argente J, García-Segura LM, Pozo J, Chowen JA","10.1159/000185015",{"id":10728,"title":10729,"authors":10730,"journal":10731,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":10732},640,"Ghrelin Receptor Ligands Reaching Clinical Trials: From Peptides to Peptidomimetics; from Agonists to Antagonists.","Vodnik M, Štrukelj B, Lunder M","Hormone and metabolic research = Hormon- und Stoffwechselforschung = Hormones et metabolisme","10.1055/s-0035-1564149",{"id":10734,"title":10735,"authors":10736,"journal":3938,"year":1196,"citationType":167,"doi":10737},641,"Metabolism of growth hormone releasing peptides.","Thomas A, Delahaut P, Krug O, Schänzer W, Thevis M","10.1021/ac302034w",{"id":8667,"title":10739,"authors":10740,"journal":3452,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":10741},"Structure-activity relationship for peptídic growth hormone secretagogues.","Ferro P, Krotov G, Zvereva I, Rodchenkov G, Segura J","10.1002/dta.1947",{"id":10743,"title":10744,"authors":10745,"journal":10746,"year":2522,"citationType":167,"doi":10747},643,"Orally active growth hormone secretagogues: state of the art and clinical perspectives.","Ghigo E, Arvat E, Camanni F","Annals of medicine","10.3109/07853899808999399",{"id":10749,"title":10750,"authors":10751,"journal":9791,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":10752},644,"Growth Hormone-Releasing Peptide 2 May Be Associated With Decreased M1 Macrophage Production and Increased Histologic and Biomechanical Tendon-Bone Healing Properties in a Rat Rotator Cuff Tear Model.","Li Y, Yao L, Zhang C, Li T, Wang D, Li J, Huang Y, Tang X","10.1016/j.arthro.2024.11.094",{"id":10754,"title":10755,"authors":10756,"journal":7022,"year":203,"citationType":167,"doi":10757},645,"Interactive regulation of postmenopausal growth hormone insulin-like growth factor axis by estrogen and growth hormone-releasing peptide-2.","Veldhuis JD, Evans WS, Bowers CY, Anderson S","10.1385/ENDO:14:1:045",{"id":10759,"title":10760,"authors":10761,"journal":10277,"year":2522,"citationType":167,"doi":10762},646,"Growth hormone-releasing peptides and their analogs.","Camanni F, Ghigo E, Arvat E","10.1006/frne.1997.0158",{"id":7813,"title":10764,"authors":10765,"journal":10766,"year":836,"citationType":167},"Growth hormone-releasing peptides and the cardiovascular system.","Muccioli G, Broglio F, Valetto MR, Ghè C, Catapano F, Graziani A, Papotti M, Bisi G, Deghenghi R, Ghigo E","Annales d'endocrinologie",{"id":602,"title":10768,"authors":10769,"journal":3142,"year":2522,"citationType":167,"doi":10770},"Specific receptors for synthetic GH secretagogues in the human brain and pituitary gland.","Muccioli G, Ghè C, Ghigo MC, Papotti M, Arvat E, Boghen MF, Nilsson MH, Deghenghi R, Ong H, Ghigo E","10.1677/joe.0.1570099",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":2222,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":10773},"2026-01-05T22:12:03.982876","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/ghrp-2.avif","817.98","C45H55N9O6","6918297","D-Ala-D-2Nal-Ala-Trp-D-Phe-Lys-NH2","~30 minutes","158861-67-7","C[C@H](C(=O)N[C@H](CC1=CC2=CC=CC=C2C=C1)C(=O)N[C@@H](C)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC3=CNC4=CC=CC=C43)C(=O)N[C@H](CC5=CC=CC=C5)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCCN)C(=O)N)N",[10783,10784,10785,10786,10787],"Pralmorelin","KP-102","GPA-748","GHRP Kaken 100","growth hormone-releasing peptide-2",[10789,10790,10791,10792],"GH secretagogue research","Growth hormone deficiency diagnosis","Wasting and cachexia","Anorexia nervosa (investigational)",{"human":10794,"animal":10795,"inVitro":10796,"uncertain":10797},"A phase 1 study characterized GHRP-2 pharmacokinetics and GH-releasing pharmacodynamics in children. A case report described one year of intranasal GHRP-2 improving body weight and hypoglycemia in a severely emaciated anorexia nervosa patient. Pralmorelin (GHRP-2) is used clinically in Japan (marketed as GHRP Kaken 100) as a growth hormone stimulation test for diagnosing GH deficiency.","GHRP-2 potently stimulates GH release in animal models via the ghrelin receptor (GHS-R1a), and combinations with GHRH have been studied for amplified GH responses.","Receptor studies show GHRP-2 is a potent agonist at the ghrelin/growth hormone secretagogue receptor (GHS-R1a).","Therapeutic claims for GHRP-2 in anti-aging, bodybuilding, or general GH replacement are not supported by clinical trials; its established human use is as a diagnostic GH stimulation test.",[10799,10803],{"finding":10800,"source":10801,"year":2522,"link":10802,"evidenceLevel":46},"Phase 1 study in children characterized the pharmacokinetics and GH-releasing pharmacodynamics of GHRP-2 after subcutaneous administration.","Phase 1 clinical study in children","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9543135/",{"finding":10804,"source":10805,"year":1516,"link":10806,"evidenceLevel":27},"One-year intranasal GHRP-2 use improved body weight and hypoglycemia in a severely emaciated anorexia nervosa patient.","case report","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26401470/","Human data are limited to small phase 1/pharmacokinetic studies, case reports, and diagnostic-test use. No large clinical trials support therapeutic use for GH deficiency, wasting, or anti-aging; long-term safety data are lacking, and its short half-life limits practical use.","Short-acting peptide secretagogue given by subcutaneous or intranasal administration. It activates the ghrelin receptor (GHS-R1a) to stimulate endogenous GH release (it is not GH itself). The phase 1 pediatric study reported rapid absorption and a short plasma half-life consistent with repeated-dosing protocols.",[10810,10813,10816],{"question":10811,"answer":10812},"Is GHRP-2 approved by the FDA?","No. It is not FDA-approved as a drug; pralmorelin (GHRP-2) has regulatory approval in Japan for use as a diagnostic GH stimulation test.",{"question":10814,"answer":10815},"How does GHRP-2 raise growth hormone?","It is an agonist at the ghrelin receptor (GHS-R1a) on pituitary somatotrophs, stimulating the release of endogenous GH, with effects amplified when combined with GHRH.",{"question":10817,"answer":10818},"Is GHRP-2 the same as ghrelin?","No. Ghrelin is the endogenous peptide ligand of the GHS-R1a receptor; GHRP-2 is a synthetic small peptide that activates the same receptor.",{"id":9314,"name":10820,"slug":10821,"description":10822,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":28,"views":4579,"shortDescription":10823,"researchStatus":10824,"peptideBenefits":10825,"benefits":10844,"peptideSideEffects":10853,"sideEffects":10867,"dosage":10519,"mechanism":10875,"safetyNote":148,"athleteWarning":10521,"chemicalMakeup":10876,"citations":10877,"research":11103,"statsCache":11104,"imageUrl":11106,"molecularWeight":11107,"molecularFormula":11108,"pubchemId":11109,"sequence":11110,"halfLife":11111,"administrationRoute":540,"casNumber":11112,"smiles":11113,"totalMentions":294,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"aliases":11114,"researchAreas":11117,"evidence":11122,"keyStudies":11127,"limitations":11132,"pharmacology":11133,"faqs":11134,"lastReviewed":359},"GHRP-6","ghrp-6","GHRP-6 (Growth Hormone Releasing Peptide-6) is one of the first synthetic growth hormone secretagogues developed, consisting of six amino acids that stimulate growth hormone release through ghrelin receptor (GHS-R1a) activation. Research demonstrates GHRP-6 produces potent GH stimulation but is characterized by significant appetite increase due to its strong ghrelin-mimetic effects. The peptide also elevates cortisol and prolactin levels more than newer, more selective alternatives. Despite these characteristics, GHRP-6 effectively promotes muscle growth, fat metabolism, improved recovery, and enhanced sleep quality through optimized GH secretion. Studies show additive effects when combined with GHRH analogs. GHRP-6 has been used extensively in research settings to study growth hormone physiology and the ghrelin system. The peptide requires multiple daily subcutaneous injections and is typically administered on an empty stomach to maximize GH response. While effective for GH stimulation, the pronounced hunger effects have led many researchers and users to prefer more selective alternatives like Ipamorelin or Hexarelin.","Growth hormone secretagogue with strong appetite stimulation","Research compound - Growth hormone releasing peptide",[10826,10828,10830,10832,10834,10836,10838,10841],{"id":5120,"benefit":10827,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Appetite stimulation",{"id":5122,"benefit":10829,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Enhanced strength",{"id":4654,"benefit":10831,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Better sleep quality",{"id":7841,"benefit":10833,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Muscle recovery",{"id":5117,"benefit":10835,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Growth hormone release",{"id":6033,"benefit":10837,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Improved body composition",{"id":8686,"benefit":10839,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":10840,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},"Cardioprotection: Prevents doxorubicin cardiomyopathy, preserves LV function","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38873418/",{"id":8689,"benefit":10842,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":10843,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},"Multiple Organ Protection: 50-85% reduction in hepatic/intestinal damage","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16417467/",[10845,10846,10847,10848,10849,10850,10851,10852],{"id":5120,"benefit":10827,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":5122,"benefit":10829,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":4654,"benefit":10831,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":7841,"benefit":10833,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":5117,"benefit":10835,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":6033,"benefit":10837,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":8686,"benefit":10839,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":10840,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":8689,"benefit":10842,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":10843,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},[10854,10855,10857,10859,10860,10862,10864],{"id":1247,"sideEffect":10496,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":23,"source":44,"sourceType":44,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":10497,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":1250,"sideEffect":10827,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":23,"source":44,"sourceType":44,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":10856,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10336729/",{"id":361,"sideEffect":10858,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Very strong appetite stimulation",{"id":3660,"sideEffect":678,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":3662,"sideEffect":10861,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Tingling",{"id":3664,"sideEffect":10863,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Rare prolactin increase",{"id":246,"sideEffect":398,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":10865,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":7820,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":10820,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":6343,"management":10866,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},"Very common","Expected pharmacologic effect",[10868,10869,10870,10871,10872,10873,10874],{"id":1247,"sideEffect":10496,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":23,"source":44,"sourceType":44,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":10497,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":1250,"sideEffect":10827,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":23,"source":44,"sourceType":44,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":10856,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":361,"sideEffect":10858,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":3660,"sideEffect":678,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":3662,"sideEffect":10861,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":3664,"sideEffect":10863,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":246,"sideEffect":398,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":10865,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":7820,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":10820,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":6343,"management":10866,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},"Potent GH releaser with appetite enhancement","Hexapeptide His-D-Trp-Ala-Trp-D-Phe-Lys-NH₂",[10878,10882,10886,10890,10893,10897,10901,10906,10910,10916,10917,10921,10925,10930,10935,10941,10947,10952,10957,10959,10964,10966,10971,10977,10982,10987,10993,10998,11003,11008,11013,11018,11023,11025,11031,11037,11042,11047,11052,11058,11062,11067,11068,11073,11077,11083,11089,11095,11097,11098,11102],{"id":5122,"title":10879,"authors":10880,"journal":1037,"year":157,"citationType":44,"doi":10881},"The Ghrelin Analog GHRP-6, Delivered Through Aquafeeds, Modulates the Endocrine and Immune Responses of","Leandro Rodríguez-Viera, Anyell Caderno, Rebeca Martinez, Gonzalo Martinez-Rodríguez, Milagrosa Oliva","10.4049/jimmunol.0801755",{"id":6340,"title":10883,"authors":155,"journal":1493,"year":157,"citationType":158,"doi":10884,"researchPaperId":10885},"GHRP-6: Mechanisms and Therapeutic Potential","10.3390/biom15010078","pubmed_41327290",{"id":3638,"title":10887,"authors":155,"journal":3059,"year":157,"citationType":158,"doi":10888,"researchPaperId":10889},"GHRP-6 and Cytoprotection: Recent Advances","10.1016/j.peptides.2025.171398","pubmed_41151018",{"id":605,"title":10891,"authors":10892,"journal":10577,"year":750,"citationType":167},"Growth hormone releasing hexapeptide-6 (GHRP-6) test in the diagnosis of GH-deficiency.","Pombo M, Leal-Cerro A, Barreiro J, Peñalva A, Peino R, Mallo F, Dieguez C, Casanueva FF",{"id":608,"title":10894,"authors":10895,"journal":5625,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":10896},"[D-Lys3]-GHRP-6 exhibits pro-autophagic effects on skeletal muscle.","Yu AP, Pei XM, Sin TK, Yip SP, Yung BY, Chan LW, Wong CS, Siu PM","10.1016/j.mce.2014.09.031",{"id":8669,"title":10898,"authors":10899,"journal":10313,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":10900},"D-Lys-3-GHRP-6 impairs memory consolidation and downregulates the hippocampal serotonin HT1A, HT7 receptors and glutamate GluA1 subunit of AMPA receptors.","Beheshti S, Sami M, Mirzabeh A, Yazdi A","10.1016/j.physbeh.2020.112969",{"id":10902,"title":10903,"authors":10904,"journal":2183,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":10905},653,"Growth hormone releasing peptide-6 (GHRP-6) prevents doxorubicin-induced myocardial and extra-myocardial damages by activating prosurvival mechanisms.","Berlanga-Acosta J, Cibrian D, Valiente-Mustelier J, Suárez-Alba J, García-Ojalvo A, Falcón-Cama V, Jiang B, Wang L, Guillén-Nieto G","10.3389/fphar.2024.1402138",{"id":10907,"title":10908,"authors":10909,"journal":10577,"year":750,"citationType":167},654,"Evaluation of pituitary GH reserve with GHRP-6.","Popovic V, Micic D, Damjanovic S, Djurovic M, Simic M, Gligorovic M, Dieguez C, Casanueva FF",{"id":10911,"title":10912,"authors":10913,"journal":10914,"year":1152,"citationType":167,"doi":10915},655,"N-aminoimidazolidin-2-one peptidomimetics.","Doan ND, Hopewell R, Lubell WD","Organic letters","10.1021/ol500739k",{"id":4043,"title":10548,"authors":10549,"journal":3452,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":10550},{"id":4045,"title":10918,"authors":10919,"journal":10711,"year":1396,"citationType":167,"doi":10920},"Regulation of growth hormone secretion by the growth hormone releasing hexapeptide (GHRP-6).","Micic D, Mallo F, Peino R, Cordido F, Leal-Cerro A, Garcia-Mayor RV, Casanueva FF","10.1515/jpem.1993.6.3-4.283",{"id":4048,"title":10922,"authors":10923,"journal":10924,"year":736,"citationType":167},"GHRP-6 in heifer and cow adenohypophisial cells separated by elutriation.","Rico M, Lorenzo MT, Pazo JA, Vega FV, De la Cruz LF","Journal of physiology and biochemistry",{"id":4050,"title":10926,"authors":10927,"journal":10928,"year":3074,"citationType":167,"doi":10929},"Use of growth-hormone-releasing peptide-6 (GHRP-6) for the prevention of multiple organ failure.","Cibrián D, Ajamieh H, Berlanga J, León OS, Alba JS, Kim MJ, Marchbank T, Boyle JJ, Freyre F, Garcia Del Barco D, Lopez-Saura P, Guillen G, Ghosh S, Goodlad RA, Playford RJ","Clinical science (London, England : 1979)","10.1042/CS20050374",{"id":10931,"title":10932,"authors":10933,"journal":10657,"year":173,"citationType":167,"doi":10934},660,"GHRP-6 is able to stimulate cortisol and ACTH release in patients with Cushing's disease: comparison with DDAVP.","Oliveira JH, Vieira JG, Abucham J, Lengyel AM","10.1007/BF03345162",{"id":10936,"title":10937,"authors":10938,"journal":10939,"year":1105,"citationType":167,"doi":10940},661,"GHRP-6 induces CREB phosphorylation and growth hormone secretion via a protein kinase Csigma-dependent pathway in GH3 cells.","Tian C, Ye F, Xu T, Wang S, Wang X, Wang H, Wan F, Lei T","Journal of Huazhong University of Science and Technology. Medical sciences = Hua zhong ke ji da xue xue bao. Yi xue Ying De wen ban = Huazhong keji daxue xuebao. Yixue Yingdewen ban","10.1007/s11596-010-0210-5",{"id":10942,"title":10943,"authors":10944,"journal":10945,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":10946},662,"Ghrelin antagonist D-Lys3-GHRP-6 counteract ghrelin effects in bovine cumulus-oocytes complexes matured in vitro.","Carranza-Martín AC, Nikoloff N, Anchordoquy JP, Anchordoquy JM, Relling AE, Furnus CC","Reproduction in domestic animals = Zuchthygiene","10.1111/rda.13982",{"id":10948,"title":10949,"authors":10950,"journal":10601,"year":729,"citationType":167,"doi":10951},663,"Growth hormone secretion after the administration of GHRP-6 or GHRH combined with GHRP-6 does not decline in late adulthood.","Micic D, Popovic V, Kendereski A, Macut D, Casanueva FF, Dieguez C","10.1111/j.1365-2265.1995.tb01861.x",{"id":10953,"title":10954,"authors":10955,"journal":2137,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":10956},664,"Growth hormone-releasing peptide 6 (GHRP-6) hydrogel for acute kidney injury therapy via metabolic regulation.","Zhao X, Pan K, Li R, Liu M, Li D, Jia P, Han Z, Han ZC, Guo Z, Li Z, Li Q","10.1186/s12951-025-03888-9",{"id":10958,"title":10567,"authors":10568,"journal":3452,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":10569},665,{"id":10960,"title":10961,"authors":10962,"journal":10601,"year":750,"citationType":167,"doi":10963},666,"Growth hormone response to GHRH, GHRP-6 and GHRH + GHRP-6 in patients with polycystic ovary syndrome.","Micić D, Kendereski A, Popović V, Sumarac M, Zorić S, Macut D, Dieguez C, Casanueva F","10.1046/j.1365-2265.1996.8380848.x",{"id":10965,"title":10614,"authors":10615,"journal":3142,"year":750,"citationType":167,"doi":10616},667,{"id":10967,"title":10968,"authors":10969,"journal":1419,"year":729,"citationType":167,"doi":10970},668,"Absence of growth hormone (GH) secretion after the administration of either GH-releasing hormone (GHRH), GH-releasing peptide (GHRP-6), or GHRH plus GHRP-6 in children with neonatal pituitary stalk transection.","Pombo M, Barreiro J, Peñalva A, Peino R, Dieguez C, Casanueva FF","10.1210/jcem.80.11.7593423",{"id":10972,"title":10973,"authors":10974,"journal":10975,"year":1105,"citationType":167,"doi":10976},669,"Effects of ghrelin, GH-releasing peptide-6 (GHRP-6) and GHRH on GH, ACTH and cortisol release in hyperthyroidism before and after treatment.","Molica P, Nascif SO, Correa-Silva SR, de Sá LB, Vieira JG, Lengyel AM","Pituitary","10.1007/s11102-010-0238-3",{"id":10978,"title":10979,"authors":10980,"journal":10601,"year":2522,"citationType":167,"doi":10981},670,"Growth hormone secretion elicited by GHRH, GHRP-6 or GHRH plus GHRP-6 in patients with microprolactinoma and macroprolactinoma before and after bromocriptine therapy.","Popovic V, Simic M, Ilic L, Micic D, Damjanovic S, Djurovic M, Obradovic S, Dieguez C, Casanueva F","10.1046/j.1365-2265.1998.00360.x",{"id":10983,"title":10984,"authors":10985,"journal":1419,"year":729,"citationType":167,"doi":10986},671,"Blocked growth hormone-releasing peptide (GHRP-6)-induced GH secretion and absence of the synergic action of GHRP-6 plus GH-releasing hormone in patients with hypothalamopituitary disconnection: evidence that GHRP-6 main action is exerted at the hypothalamic level.","Popovic V, Damjanovic S, Micic D, Djurovic M, Dieguez C, Casanueva FF","10.1210/jcem.80.3.7883854",{"id":10988,"title":10989,"authors":10990,"journal":10991,"year":710,"citationType":167,"doi":10992},672,"GHRP-6 induces a biphasic calcium response in rat pituitary somatotrophs.","Bresson-Bépoldin L, Dufy-Barbe L","Cell calcium","10.1016/0143-4160(94)90064-7",{"id":10994,"title":10995,"authors":10996,"journal":10646,"year":736,"citationType":167,"doi":10997},673,"GHRP-6-induced changes in electrical activity of single cells in the arcuate, ventromedial and periventricular nucleus neurones [correction of nuclei] of a hypothalamic slice preparation in vitro.","Hewson AK, Viltart O, McKenzie DN, Dyball RE, Dickson SL","10.1046/j.1365-2826.1999.00408.x",{"id":10999,"title":11000,"authors":11001,"journal":3059,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":11002},674,"Inhibition of ghrelin activity by the receptor antagonist [D-Lys3]-GHRP-6 enhances hepatic fatty acid oxidation and gluconeogenesis in a growing pig model.","Zhang H, Yan X, Lin A, Xia P, Su Y","10.1016/j.peptides.2023.171041",{"id":11004,"title":11005,"authors":11006,"journal":5625,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":11007},675,"miR-709 inhibits GHRP6 induced GH synthesis by targeting PRKCA in pituitary.","Cheng Y, Chen T, Song J, Qi Q, Wang C, Xi Q, Liu S, Hao L, Zhang Y","10.1016/j.mce.2020.110763",{"id":11009,"title":11010,"authors":11011,"journal":10928,"year":290,"citationType":167,"doi":11012},676,"Growth-hormone-releasing peptide 6 (GHRP6) prevents oxidant cytotoxicity and reduces myocardial necrosis in a model of acute myocardial infarction.","Berlanga J, Cibrian D, Guevara L, Dominguez H, Alba JS, Seralena A, Guillén G, López-Mola E, López-Saura P, Rodriguez A, Perez B, Garcia D, Vispo NS","10.1042/CS20060103",{"id":11014,"title":11015,"authors":11016,"journal":10646,"year":750,"citationType":167,"doi":11017},677,"GHRP6-stimulated hormone secretion in somatotrophs: involvement of intracellular and extracellular calcium sources.","Bresson-Bepoldin L, Dufy-Barbe L","10.1046/j.1365-2826.1996.04608.x",{"id":11019,"title":11020,"authors":11021,"journal":10731,"year":1384,"citationType":167,"doi":11022},678,"Diagnosis of growth hormone deficiency in adults: provocative testing with GHRP6 in comparison to the insulin tolerance test.","Alaioubi B, Mann K, Petersenn S","10.1055/s-0028-1093350",{"id":11024,"title":10676,"authors":10677,"journal":10678,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":10679},679,{"id":11026,"title":11027,"authors":11028,"journal":11029,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":11030},680,"Ghrelin alleviates intestinal ischemia-reperfusion injury by activating the GHSR-1α/Sirt1/FOXO1 pathway.","Liao SS, Zhang LL, Zhang YG, Luo J, Kadier T, Ding K, Chen R, Meng QT","FASEB journal : official publication of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology","10.1096/fj.202302155RRR",{"id":11032,"title":11033,"authors":11034,"journal":11035,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":11036},681,"The effect of obestatin on anxiety-like behaviour in mice.","Szakács J, Csabafi K, Lipták N, Szabó G","Behavioural brain research","10.1016/j.bbr.2015.06.042",{"id":11038,"title":11039,"authors":11040,"journal":6391,"year":736,"citationType":167,"doi":11041},682,"Growth hormone secretagogues: the clinical future.","Micic D, Casabiell X, Gualillo O, Pombo M, Dieguez C, Casanueva FF","10.1159/000053159",{"id":11043,"title":11044,"authors":11045,"journal":10652,"year":229,"citationType":167,"doi":11046},683,"Effects of ghrelin and its analogues on chicken ovarian granulosa cells.","Sirotkin AV, Grossmann R","10.1016/j.domaniend.2006.11.005",{"id":11048,"title":11049,"authors":11050,"journal":10652,"year":243,"citationType":167,"doi":11051},684,"Physiology of ghrelin and related peptides.","Anderson LL, Jeftinija S, Scanes CG, Stromer MH, Lee JS, Jeftinija K, Glavaski-Joksimovic A","10.1016/j.domaniend.2005.02.033",{"id":11053,"title":11054,"authors":11055,"journal":11056,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":11057},685,"Growth hormone-releasing peptide 6 prevents cutaneous hypertrophic scarring: early mechanistic data from a proteome study.","Fernández-Mayola M, Betancourt L, Molina-Kautzman A, Palomares S, Mendoza-Marí Y, Ugarte-Moreno D, Aguilera-Barreto A, Bermúdez-Álvarez Y, Besada V, González LJ, García-Ojalvo A, Mir-Benítez AJ, Urquiza-Rodríguez A, Berlanga-Acosta J","International wound journal","10.1111/iwj.12895",{"id":7764,"title":11059,"authors":11060,"journal":6374,"year":736,"citationType":167,"doi":11061},"Growth hormone in obesity.","Scacchi M, Pincelli AI, Cavagnini F","10.1038/sj.ijo.0800807",{"id":7767,"title":11063,"authors":11064,"journal":11065,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":11066},"Rikkunshito improves anorexia through ghrelin- and orexin-dependent activation of the brain hypothalamus and mesolimbic dopaminergic pathway in rats.","Yakabi K, Yamaguchi N, Takayama K, Hosomi E, Hori Y, Ro S, Ochiai M, Maezawa K, Yakabi S, Harada Y, Fujitsuka N, Nagoshi S","Neurogastroenterology and motility","10.1111/nmo.14900",{"id":7770,"title":10709,"authors":10710,"journal":10711,"year":1396,"citationType":167,"doi":10712},{"id":7773,"title":11069,"authors":11070,"journal":11071,"year":260,"citationType":167,"doi":11072},"Epidermal growth factor and growth hormone-releasing peptide-6: combined therapeutic approach in experimental stroke.","García Del Barco-Herrera D, Martínez NS, Coro-Antich RM, Machado JM, Alba JS, Salgueiro SR, Acosta JB","Restorative neurology and neuroscience","10.3233/RNN-120262",{"id":7776,"title":11074,"authors":11075,"journal":3189,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":11076},"Intranasal Delivery of a Ghrelin Mimetic Engages the Brain Ghrelin Signaling System in Mice.","Poelman R, Le May MV, Schéle E, Stoltenborg I, Dickson SL","10.1210/endocr/bqae166",{"id":11078,"title":11079,"authors":11080,"journal":11081,"year":166,"citationType":167,"doi":11082},691,"Research progress in the stimulatory inputs regulating growth hormone (GH) secretion.","Gracia-Navarro F, Castaño JP, Malagon MM, Sánchez-Hormigo A, Luque RM, Hickey GJ, Peinado JR, Delgado E, Martínez-Fuentes AJ","Comparative biochemistry and physiology. Part B, Biochemistry & molecular biology","10.1016/s1096-4959(01)00544-9",{"id":11084,"title":11085,"authors":11086,"journal":11087,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":11088},692,"Ghrelin promotes neurologic recovery and neurogenesis in the chronic phase after experimental stroke.","Beuker C, Schreiner U, Strecker JK, Altach E, Rätzel V, Schmidt-Pogoda A, Wiendl H, Minnerup J, Diederich K","Neurological research and practice","10.1186/s42466-025-00371-6",{"id":11090,"title":11091,"authors":11092,"journal":11093,"year":1396,"citationType":167,"doi":11094},693,"A nonpeptidyl growth hormone secretagogue.","Smith RG, Cheng K, Schoen WR, Pong SS, Hickey G, Jacks T, Butler B, Chan WW, Chaung LY, Judith F","Science (New York, N.Y.)","10.1126/science.8503009",{"id":11096,"title":10724,"authors":10725,"journal":6391,"year":750,"citationType":167,"doi":10726},694,{"id":8066,"title":10739,"authors":10740,"journal":3452,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":10741},{"id":8069,"title":11099,"authors":11100,"journal":4475,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":11101},"Synthesis and Biomedical Potential of Azapeptide Modulators of the Cluster of Differentiation 36 Receptor (CD36).","Proulx C, Zhang J, Sabatino D, Chemtob S, Ong H, Lubell WD","10.3390/biomedicines8080241",{"id":8071,"title":10744,"authors":10745,"journal":10746,"year":2522,"citationType":167,"doi":10747},[],{"totalProtocols":861,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":294,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":11105},"2026-01-05T22:12:00.321211","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/ghrp-6.avif","873.01","C46H56N12O6","5486806","His-D-Trp-Ala-Trp-D-Phe-Lys-NH2","~2.5 hours","87616-84-0","CC(C(=O)NC(CC1=CNC2=CC=CC=C21)C(=O)NC(CC3=CC=CC=C3)C(=O)NC(CCCCN)C(=O)N)NC(=O)C(CC4=CNC5=CC=CC=C54)NC(=O)C(CC6=CN=CN6)N",[11115,11110,11116],"Growth hormone-releasing peptide-6","GHRP-6 hexapeptide",[11118,11119,11120,11121],"Growth hormone secretion / secretagogues","Ghrelin (GHS-R1a) receptor pharmacology","Appetite regulation","GH-deficiency diagnostics",{"human":11123,"animal":11124,"inVitro":11125,"uncertain":11126},"GHRP-6 has been used in clinical research settings to probe GH physiology: for example, a 1995 study showed additive GH responses when GHRH, GHRP-6, and pyridostigmine were combined in normal and obese subjects. It is not an FDA-approved drug for any indication.","Rodent studies established GHRP-6 as a potent GH secretagogue acting through the ghrelin receptor (GHS-R1a), with marked orexigenic (appetite-stimulating) effects.","Cell-based assays confirm GHRP-6 binds and activates the growth hormone secretagogue receptor (GHS-R1a/ghrelin receptor).","Body-composition, recovery, and performance claims for GHRP-6 as a self-administered peptide are not supported by clinical trials; elevations in cortisol and prolactin and strong hunger are reported effects that make it poorly suited to therapeutic use.",[11128],{"finding":11129,"source":11130,"year":729,"link":11131,"evidenceLevel":46},"Combined administration of GHRH, GHRP-6, and pyridostigmine produced additive GH responses in normal and obese subjects, demonstrating GHRP-6's GH-releasing activity in humans.","Clinical study (Metabolism)","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7783658/","Human data come mainly from short physiological studies of GH secretion, not from trials of therapeutic or performance outcomes. No long-term efficacy or safety trials exist; appetite stimulation, cortisol/prolactin effects, and the need for frequent injections are major caveats.","Short-acting hexapeptide agonist of the ghrelin/GHS-R1a receptor; in research use it is given by subcutaneous injection to stimulate pulsatile GH release. Published human pharmacokinetic data are limited; no approved indication or dose exists.",[11135,11138,11141],{"question":11136,"answer":11137},"Is GHRP-6 FDA approved?","No. GHRP-6 is an unapproved research peptide.",{"question":11139,"answer":11140},"Why does GHRP-6 cause hunger?","It activates the ghrelin receptor (GHS-R1a), the same receptor targeted by the 'hunger hormone' ghrelin, which stimulates appetite.",{"question":11142,"answer":11143},"Is GHRP-6 evidence-based for muscle growth?","It reliably raises GH in short-term physiology studies, but no clinical trials demonstrate muscle or performance benefits from GHRP-6 use.",{"id":7440,"name":11145,"slug":11146,"description":11147,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":28,"views":5134,"shortDescription":11148,"researchStatus":10447,"peptideBenefits":11149,"benefits":11170,"peptideSideEffects":11183,"sideEffects":11204,"dosage":10519,"mechanism":11215,"safetyNote":148,"athleteWarning":11216,"chemicalMakeup":11217,"citations":11218,"research":11346,"statsCache":11347,"imageUrl":11349,"molecularWeight":11350,"molecularFormula":11351,"pubchemId":11352,"sequence":11353,"halfLife":11354,"administrationRoute":540,"casNumber":11355,"smiles":11356,"totalMentions":2486,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"protocols":11357,"aliases":11369,"researchAreas":11374,"evidence":11379,"keyStudies":11384,"limitations":11401,"pharmacology":11402,"faqs":11403,"lastReviewed":359},"Hexarelin","hexarelin","Hexarelin (Examorelin) is a synthetic hexapeptide growth hormone secretagogue that demonstrates unique dual activity: potent GH stimulation through ghrelin receptor activation and distinct cardioprotective effects through CD36 receptor binding. Research shows Hexarelin produces the strongest GH release among the GHRP family peptides, though it is subject to desensitization with prolonged use. The cardioprotective properties are independent of GH release and involve direct effects on cardiac tissue, including improved contractility, reduced apoptosis, and protection against ischemia-reperfusion injury. Studies demonstrate Hexarelin may improve cardiac function in heart failure models and protect against doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity. The peptide has been investigated for both growth hormone deficiency and cardiovascular applications. Like other GHRPs, Hexarelin increases appetite and produces modest elevations in cortisol and prolactin. Administration requires subcutaneous injection, and cycling protocols are often recommended to prevent receptor desensitization. The unique cardiac benefits distinguish Hexarelin from other growth hormone secretagogues.","Potent growth hormone releasing peptide with cardioprotective effects",[11150,11151,11152,11153,11154,11155,11156,11159,11162,11165,11167,11169],{"id":4660,"benefit":10212,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":5492,"benefit":9952,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":1922,"benefit":10456,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":4666,"benefit":6451,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":1916,"benefit":34,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":8438,"benefit":10461,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":8693,"benefit":11157,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":11158,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},"Cardiac Performance: LVEF increased 10-14% in CAD/GHD patients","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12144941/",{"id":6631,"benefit":11160,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":11161,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},"Cardiac Fibrosis Reduction: Reduces collagen, hypertrophy","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22842067/",{"id":10367,"benefit":11163,"benefitCategory":11164,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},"Cardioprotective effects via cardiac CD36 receptor","cardiovascular",{"id":10372,"benefit":11166,"benefitCategory":11164,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},"Improved cardiac function post-myocardial infarction",{"id":10378,"benefit":11168,"benefitCategory":6289,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},"Reduced visceral fat and liver triglycerides",{"id":10383,"benefit":7759,"benefitCategory":6289,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},[11171,11172,11173,11174,11175,11176,11177,11178,11179,11180,11181,11182],{"id":4660,"benefit":10212,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":5492,"benefit":9952,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":1922,"benefit":10456,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":4666,"benefit":6451,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":1916,"benefit":34,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":8438,"benefit":10461,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":8693,"benefit":11157,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":11158,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":6631,"benefit":11160,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":11161,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":10367,"benefit":11163,"benefitCategory":11164,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},{"id":10372,"benefit":11166,"benefitCategory":11164,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},{"id":10378,"benefit":11168,"benefitCategory":6289,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},{"id":10383,"benefit":7759,"benefitCategory":6289,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},[11184,11186,11188,11190,11193,11196,11197,11199,11200,11202],{"id":6297,"sideEffect":11185,"description":23,"severity":2597,"frequency":2598,"source":24,"sourceType":24,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":23,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Appetite increase",{"id":6299,"sideEffect":11187,"description":23,"severity":2597,"frequency":2598,"source":24,"sourceType":24,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":23,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"ACTH/cortisol stimulation",{"id":6301,"sideEffect":11189,"description":23,"severity":10494,"frequency":2602,"source":24,"sourceType":24,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":23,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Blood glucose effects",{"id":1253,"sideEffect":11191,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":23,"source":44,"sourceType":44,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":11192,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Cortisol elevation","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10404825/",{"id":7134,"sideEffect":11194,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":23,"source":44,"sourceType":44,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":11195,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Desensitization","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9589671/",{"id":3667,"sideEffect":10005,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":4136,"sideEffect":11198,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Joint stiffness",{"id":3969,"sideEffect":11185,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":9542,"sideEffect":11201,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Rare prolactin-related effects",{"id":257,"sideEffect":1878,"description":23,"severity":1879,"frequency":5476,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":7820,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":11145,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":6345,"management":11203,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},"Monitor; more pronounced than other GHRPs",[11205,11206,11207,11208,11209,11210,11211,11212,11213,11214],{"id":6297,"sideEffect":11185,"description":23,"severity":2597,"frequency":2598,"source":24,"sourceType":24,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":23,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":6299,"sideEffect":11187,"description":23,"severity":2597,"frequency":2598,"source":24,"sourceType":24,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":23,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":6301,"sideEffect":11189,"description":23,"severity":10494,"frequency":2602,"source":24,"sourceType":24,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":23,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":1253,"sideEffect":11191,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":23,"source":44,"sourceType":44,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":11192,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":7134,"sideEffect":11194,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":23,"source":44,"sourceType":44,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":11195,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":3667,"sideEffect":10005,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":4136,"sideEffect":11198,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":3969,"sideEffect":11185,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":9542,"sideEffect":11201,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":257,"sideEffect":1878,"description":23,"severity":1879,"frequency":5476,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":7820,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":11145,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":6345,"management":11203,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},"Synthetic hexapeptide with strong GH-releasing activity","WADA BANNED - Prohibited in competitive sports as potent growth hormone releasing agent","Hexapeptide His-D-2-Me-Trp-Ala-Trp-D-Phe-Lys-NH₂",[11219,11223,11228,11234,11239,11245,11250,11255,11261,11263,11269,11274,11280,11285,11291,11296,11301,11305,11309,11313,11317,11321,11326,11332,11338,11342],{"id":1221,"title":11220,"authors":155,"journal":7022,"year":458,"citationType":158,"doi":11221,"researchPaperId":11222},"Hexarelin: Potent GH Secretagogue with Cardioprotective Properties","10.1007/s12020-024-04089-w","pubmed_40465419",{"id":11224,"title":11225,"authors":11226,"journal":10601,"year":723,"citationType":167,"doi":11227},815,"Interaction of the growth hormone releasing peptide hexarelin with somatostatin.","Massoud AF, Hindmarsh PC, Brook CG","10.1046/j.1365-2265.1997.3121128.x",{"id":11229,"title":11230,"authors":11231,"journal":11232,"year":1152,"citationType":167,"doi":11233},796,"The cardiovascular action of hexarelin.","Mao Y, Tokudome T, Kishimoto I","Journal of geriatric cardiology : JGC","10.11909/j.issn.1671-5411.2014.03.007",{"id":11235,"title":11236,"authors":11237,"journal":2165,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":11238},797,"Hexarelin alleviates apoptosis on ischemic acute kidney injury via MDM2/p53 pathway.","Guan C, Li C, Shen X, Yang C, Liu Z, Zhang N, Xu L, Zhao L, Zhou B, Man X, Luo C, Luan H, Che L, Wang Y, Xu Y","10.1186/s40001-023-01318-w",{"id":11240,"title":11241,"authors":11242,"journal":11243,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":11244},798,"Hexarelin attenuates abdominal aortic aneurysm formation by inhibiting SMC phenotype switch and inflammasome activation.","Jiang B, Wang M, Li X, Ren P, Li G, Wang Y, Wang L, Li X, Yang D, Qin L, Xin S","Microvascular research","10.1016/j.mvr.2021.104280",{"id":11246,"title":11247,"authors":11248,"journal":516,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":11249},799,"The CD36-PPARγ Pathway in Metabolic Disorders.","Maréchal L, Laviolette M, Rodrigue-Way A, Sow B, Brochu M, Caron V, Tremblay A","10.3390/ijms19051529",{"id":11251,"title":11252,"authors":11253,"journal":7022,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":11254},800,"Implications of ghrelin and hexarelin in diabetes and diabetes-associated heart diseases.","Mosa RM, Zhang Z, Shao R, Deng C, Chen J, Chen C","10.1007/s12020-015-0531-z",{"id":11256,"title":11257,"authors":11258,"journal":11259,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":11260},801,"Ghrelin receptor agonist hexarelin attenuates antinociceptive tolerance to morphine in rats.","Baser T, Ozdemir E, Filiz AK, Taskiran AS, Gursoy S","Canadian journal of physiology and pharmacology","10.1139/cjpp-2020-0218",{"id":11262,"title":10542,"authors":10543,"journal":10544,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":10545},802,{"id":11264,"title":11265,"authors":11266,"journal":11267,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":11268},803,"Hexarelin modulates lung mechanics, inflammation, and fibrosis in acute lung injury.","Zambelli V, Rizzi L, Delvecchio P, Bresciani E, Rezoagli E, Molteni L, Meanti R, Cuttin MS, Bovo G, Coco S, Omeljaniuk RJ, Locatelli V, Bellani G, Torsello A","Drug target insights","10.33393/dti.2021.2347",{"id":11270,"title":11271,"authors":11272,"journal":9669,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":11273},804,"Hexarelin Modulation of MAPK and PI3K/Akt Pathways in Neuro-2A Cells Inhibits Hydrogen Peroxide-Induced Apoptotic Toxicity.","Meanti R, Rizzi L, Bresciani E, Molteni L, Locatelli V, Coco S, Omeljaniuk RJ, Torsello A","10.3390/ph14050444",{"id":11275,"title":11276,"authors":11277,"journal":11278,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":11279},805,"Hexarelin protects cardiac H9C2 cells from angiotensin II-induced hypertrophy via the regulation of autophagy.","Agbo E, Li MX, Wang YQ, Saahene RO, Massaro J, Tian GZ","Die Pharmazie","10.1691/ph.2019.9324",{"id":11281,"title":11282,"authors":11283,"journal":3059,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":11284},806,"Hexarelin attenuates atherosclerosis via inhibiting LOX-1-NF-κB signaling pathway-mediated macrophage ox-LDL uptake in ApoE(-/-) mice.","Cheng XL, Ding F, Wang DP, Zhou L, Cao JM","10.1016/j.peptides.2019.170122",{"id":11286,"title":11287,"authors":11288,"journal":11289,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":11290},807,"Modulation of PTEN by hexarelin attenuates coronary artery ligation-induced heart failure in rats.","Agbo E, Liu D, Li M, Saahene RO, Chen L, Zhao L, Wang Y, Tian G","Turkish journal of medical sciences","10.3906/sag-1812-49",{"id":11292,"title":11293,"authors":11294,"journal":10657,"year":229,"citationType":167,"doi":11295},808,"Hexarelin: a multi-receptor peptide.","Deghenghi R","10.1007/BF03345625",{"id":11297,"title":11298,"authors":11299,"journal":7022,"year":203,"citationType":167,"doi":11300},809,"Hexarelin protects H9c2 cardiomyocytes from doxorubicin-induced cell death.","Filigheddu N, Fubini A, Baldanzi G, Cutrupi S, Ghè C, Catapano F, Broglio F, Bosia A, Papotti M, Muccioli G, Ghigo E, Deghenghi R, Graziani A","10.1385/ENDO:14:1:113",{"id":7779,"title":11302,"authors":11303,"journal":3189,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":11304},"Hexarelin, a Growth Hormone Secretagogue, Improves Lipid Metabolic Aberrations in Nonobese Insulin-Resistant Male MKR Mice.","Mosa R, Huang L, Wu Y, Fung C, Mallawakankanamalage O, LeRoith D, Chen C","10.1210/en.2017-00168",{"id":7781,"title":11306,"authors":11307,"journal":516,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":11308},"Protective Effects of Hexarelin and JMV2894 in a Human Neuroblastoma Cell Line Expressing the SOD1-G93A Mutated Protein.","Meanti R, Licata M, Rizzi L, Bresciani E, Molteni L, Coco S, Locatelli V, Omeljaniuk RJ, Torsello A","10.3390/ijms24020993",{"id":7783,"title":11310,"authors":11311,"journal":2212,"year":1152,"citationType":167,"doi":11312},"We are ageing.","Kolovou GD, Kolovou V, Mavrogeni S","10.1155/2014/808307",{"id":7785,"title":11314,"authors":11315,"journal":10601,"year":736,"citationType":167,"doi":11316},"Hexarelin as a test of pituitary reserve in patients with pituitary disease.","Korbonits M, Kaltsas G, Perry LA, Grossman AB, Monson JP, Besser GM, Trainer PJ","10.1046/j.1365-2265.1999.00828.x",{"id":7787,"title":11318,"authors":11319,"journal":3189,"year":260,"citationType":167,"doi":11320},"Hexarelin treatment in male ghrelin knockout mice after myocardial infarction.","Mao Y, Tokudome T, Kishimoto I, Otani K, Hosoda H, Nagai C, Minamino N, Miyazato M, Kangawa K","10.1210/en.2013-1291",{"id":11322,"title":11323,"authors":11324,"journal":1962,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":11325},816,"Hexarelin targets neuroinflammatory pathways to preserve cardiac morphology and function in a mouse model of myocardial ischemia-reperfusion.","McDonald H, Peart J, Kurniawan ND, Galloway G, Royce SG, Samuel CS, Chen C","10.1016/j.biopha.2020.110165",{"id":11327,"title":11328,"authors":11329,"journal":11330,"year":290,"citationType":167,"doi":11331},817,"Hexarelin suppresses cardiac fibroblast proliferation and collagen synthesis in rat.","Xu X, Pang J, Yin H, Li M, Hao W, Chen C, Cao JM","American journal of physiology. Heart and circulatory physiology","10.1152/ajpheart.00004.2007",{"id":11333,"title":11334,"authors":11335,"journal":11336,"year":836,"citationType":167,"doi":11337},818,"Desmopressin and hexarelin tests in alcohol-induced pseudo-Cushing's syndrome.","Coiro V, Volpi R, Capretti L, Caffarri G, Chiodera P","Journal of internal medicine","10.1046/j.1365-2796.2000.00676.x",{"id":8080,"title":11339,"authors":11340,"journal":1419,"year":736,"citationType":167,"doi":11341},"The growth hormone secretagogue hexarelin stimulates the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis via arginine vasopressin.","Korbonits M, Kaltsas G, Perry LA, Putignano P, Grossman AB, Besser GM, Trainer PJ","10.1210/jcem.84.7.5811",{"id":8082,"title":11343,"authors":11344,"journal":11330,"year":1196,"citationType":167,"doi":11345},"Chronic administration of hexarelin attenuates cardiac fibrosis in the spontaneously hypertensive rat.","Xu X, Ding F, Pang J, Gao X, Xu RK, Hao W, Cao JM, Chen C","10.1152/ajpheart.00257.2011",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":2486,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":11348},"2026-01-05T22:12:14.163648","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/hexarelin.avif","887.04","C47H58N12O6","6918245","His-D-2MeTrp-Ala-Trp-D-Phe-Lys-NH2","30-55 minutes","140703-51-1","CC1=C(C2=CC=CC=C2N1)C[C@H](C(=O)N[C@@H](C)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC3=CNC4=CC=CC=C43)C(=O)N[C@H](CC5=CC=CC=C5)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCCN)C(=O)N)NC(=O)[C@H](CC6=CN=CN6)N",[11358,11361,11364,11366],{"name":11359,"dose":10398,"frequency":11360,"route":555},"GH Optimization","3x daily (morning, midday, evening)",{"name":11362,"dose":11363,"frequency":5807,"route":555},"Cardioprotection Research","100-200 mcg",{"name":11365,"dose":10398,"frequency":10158,"route":555},"Recovery/Anti-Aging",{"name":11367,"dose":11368,"frequency":3993,"route":555},"With GHRH (Synergistic)","100 mcg hexarelin + 100 mcg CJC-1295",[11370,11371,11372,11373],"Examorelin","Hexarelin acetate","GHS-R1a agonist hexapeptide","GHRP-like hexapeptide",[11375,11376,11377,11378],"Growth hormone secretion","Growth hormone deficiency","Heart failure and cardiac function","Aging and sarcopenia",{"human":11380,"animal":11381,"inVitro":11382,"uncertain":11383},"Clinical studies show hexarelin stimulates GH release in a dose-dependent manner in healthy subjects, including via intranasal and oral routes without short-term desensitization, and its blunted GH response in elderly subjects can be restored by arginine/GHRH priming. Cardiotropic studies reported GH-independent improvements in cardiac function measures in patients with dilated or ischemic cardiomyopathy.","Rodent studies identified CD36 as the cardiac binding site mediating GH-independent cardiovascular actions of growth hormone-releasing peptides such as hexarelin, supporting direct cardioprotective effects beyond GH release.","Hexarelin acts as an agonist at the ghrelin receptor GHS-R1a, and laboratory assays demonstrate CD36 binding in cardiac tissue.","Clinical evidence is largely from small, short-term studies from the 1990s-2000s; long-term efficacy for muscle, aging, or cardiac outcomes is unproven, and there is no approved indication.",[11385,11389,11393,11397],{"finding":11386,"source":11387,"year":710,"link":11388,"evidenceLevel":46},"Hexarelin dose-dependently increased GH secretion in healthy humans.","Dose-response clinical study (European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology)","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7957536/",{"finding":11390,"source":11391,"year":203,"link":11392,"evidenceLevel":46},"GH-independent cardiotropic activity of hexarelin observed in normal subjects, GH-deficient patients, and patients with idiopathic or ischemic dilated cardiomyopathy.","Clinical study (Endocrine)","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11322491/",{"finding":11394,"source":11395,"year":166,"link":11396,"evidenceLevel":46},"Hexarelin improved cardiac function measures in patients with severe left ventricular dysfunction due to dilated or ischemic cardiomyopathy.","Clinical study (European Journal of Heart Failure)","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11959048/",{"finding":11398,"source":11399,"year":166,"link":11400,"evidenceLevel":50},"CD36 identified as the cardiac receptor site mediating the cardiovascular action of growth hormone-releasing peptides including hexarelin.","Preclinical/in-vitro study (PubMed)","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11988484/","Most human studies are small and short-term; no large randomized trials for functional or long-term outcomes exist; effects on GH output in aging are modest and often require combination strategies; no approved therapeutic use.","Hexarelin is a synthetic hexapeptide growth hormone secretagogue that agonizes the ghrelin receptor (GHS-R1a). In studies it has been given intravenously, subcutaneously, intranasally, and orally; like most peptides it is rapidly degraded, giving a short duration of action.",[11404,11407],{"question":11405,"answer":11406},"Is hexarelin approved for medical use?","No. It has been studied clinically for GH stimulation and cardiac function but has no approved indication and is sold only as a research compound.",{"question":11408,"answer":11409},"How does hexarelin differ from GHRH or GH itself?","Hexarelin stimulates the ghrelin (GHS-R1a) pathway rather than the GHRH receptor, and it also has GH-independent effects such as direct cardiac actions.",{"id":4284,"name":11411,"slug":11412,"description":11413,"fdaApproved":28,"wadaBanned":28,"views":3760,"peptideBenefits":11414,"benefits":11425,"peptideSideEffects":11432,"sideEffects":11468,"dosage":11480,"mechanism":11481,"safetyNote":11482,"athleteWarning":11483,"chemicalMakeup":11484,"citations":11485,"research":11724,"statsCache":11725,"imageUrl":11727,"molecularWeight":11728,"molecularFormula":11729,"pubchemId":11730,"sequence":11731,"halfLife":6446,"administrationRoute":302,"smiles":11732,"totalMentions":532,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"protocols":11733,"aliases":11755,"researchAreas":11763,"evidence":11768,"keyStudies":11772,"limitations":11781,"pharmacology":11782,"faqs":11783,"lastReviewed":359},"HGH (Human Growth Hormone)","hgh","Human Growth Hormone (HGH, Somatropin) is a 191-amino acid single-chain polypeptide naturally produced by somatotroph cells in the anterior pituitary gland. HGH stimulates growth, cell reproduction, and regeneration through direct effects and indirect mechanisms via insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) production in the liver. FDA-approved indications include growth hormone deficiency in children and adults, Turner syndrome, chronic renal insufficiency, Prader-Willi syndrome, and HIV-associated wasting. Clinical effects include increased lean muscle mass, reduced body fat, improved bone density, enhanced exercise capacity, and support for tissue repair. Research continues into potential applications for aging, wound healing, and metabolic disorders. Recombinant HGH is administered via subcutaneous injection, typically daily. Side effects may include joint pain, carpal tunnel syndrome, fluid retention, and insulin resistance. Growth hormone therapy requires careful monitoring and is contraindicated in patients with active malignancy. The hormone's effects on body composition and quality of life have made it subject to misuse in anti-aging and performance enhancement contexts.",[11415,11417,11419,11421,11423,11424],{"id":3038,"benefit":11416,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Increased muscle mass",{"id":982,"benefit":11418,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Reduced body fat",{"id":979,"benefit":11420,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Enhanced bone density",{"id":985,"benefit":11422,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Improved exercise capacity",{"id":3512,"benefit":34,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3518,"benefit":10831,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},[11426,11427,11428,11429,11430,11431],{"id":3038,"benefit":11416,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":982,"benefit":11418,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":979,"benefit":11420,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":985,"benefit":11422,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3512,"benefit":34,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3518,"benefit":10831,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},[11433,11434,11437,11440,11443,11446,11452,11455,11458,11461,11465],{"id":9473,"sideEffect":10007,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":11435,"sideEffect":11436,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},140,"Edema",{"id":11438,"sideEffect":11439,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},141,"Carpal tunnel",{"id":11441,"sideEffect":11442,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},142,"Insulin resistance",{"id":11444,"sideEffect":11445,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},143,"Rare diabetes or tumor promotion",{"id":42,"sideEffect":1878,"description":23,"severity":1879,"frequency":11447,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":11448,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":11449,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":11450,"management":11451,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},"Very common (17.5%)","accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2016/020280s088lbl.pdf","HGH (Somatropin)","Days-weeks","Dose reduction",{"id":180,"sideEffect":1878,"description":23,"severity":1879,"frequency":11453,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":6633,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":11449,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":11450,"management":11454,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},"Very common (17.3%)","Dose reduction, analgesics",{"id":185,"sideEffect":7472,"description":23,"severity":1669,"frequency":11456,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":6633,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":11449,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":8149,"management":11457,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},"Common (2%)","Dose reduction, treatment interruption, surgery (2%)",{"id":190,"sideEffect":8146,"description":23,"severity":8147,"frequency":11459,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":6633,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":11449,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":8149,"management":11460,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},"Uncommon (0.4%)","Monitor glucose; adjust antihyperglycemics",{"id":195,"sideEffect":7466,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":11462,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":6633,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":11449,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":11463,"management":11464,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},"Rare (\u003C0.1%)","First 8 weeks","Discontinue; funduscopic exam",{"id":200,"sideEffect":7472,"description":23,"severity":1669,"frequency":11466,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":6633,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":11449,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":8149,"management":11467,"doseDependent":15,"needsReview":15},"Uncommon (0.1-1%)","Monitor thyroid; replacement therapy",[11469,11470,11471,11472,11473,11474,11475,11476,11477,11478,11479],{"id":9473,"sideEffect":10007,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":11435,"sideEffect":11436,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":11438,"sideEffect":11439,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":11441,"sideEffect":11442,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":11444,"sideEffect":11445,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":42,"sideEffect":1878,"description":23,"severity":1879,"frequency":11447,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":11448,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":11449,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":11450,"management":11451,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},{"id":180,"sideEffect":1878,"description":23,"severity":1879,"frequency":11453,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":6633,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":11449,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":11450,"management":11454,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},{"id":185,"sideEffect":7472,"description":23,"severity":1669,"frequency":11456,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":6633,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":11449,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":8149,"management":11457,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},{"id":190,"sideEffect":8146,"description":23,"severity":8147,"frequency":11459,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":6633,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":11449,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":8149,"management":11460,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},{"id":195,"sideEffect":7466,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":11462,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":6633,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":11449,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":11463,"management":11464,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},{"id":200,"sideEffect":7472,"description":23,"severity":1669,"frequency":11466,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":6633,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":11449,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":8149,"management":11467,"doseDependent":15,"needsReview":15},"Medical use: 0.15-0.3mg daily | Research protocols: 1-4 IU daily depending on goals","Directly stimulates protein synthesis, lipolysis, and gluconeogenesis through IGF-1 mediated pathways","FDA approved for GHD, Turner syndrome, CKD, PWS, HIV wasting, ISS. WADA BANNED. Requires medical supervision. Side effects include arthralgia, edema, carpal tunnel, glucose intolerance.","WADA BANNED - Strictly prohibited in competitive sports at all times","191-amino-acid polypeptide, sequence identical to natural pituitary GH",[11486,11489,11494,11499,11505,11511,11516,11522,11527,11532,11537,11542,11548,11554,11560,11564,11568,11573,11578,11583,11588,11594,11599,11605,11610,11615,11620,11624,11629,11633,11638,11643,11647,11652,11657,11661,11665,11670,11674,11679,11684,11688,11692,11696,11702,11708,11712,11715,11720],{"id":8084,"title":11487,"authors":11488,"journal":10766,"year":1360,"citationType":167},"[hGH and molecular biology].","Goossens M",{"id":11490,"title":11491,"authors":11492,"journal":5304,"year":1105,"citationType":167,"doi":11493},822,"Growth hormone.","Bidlingmaier M, Strasburger CJ","10.1007/978-3-540-79088-4_8",{"id":11495,"title":11496,"authors":11497,"journal":2894,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":11498},823,"Autocrine hGH stimulates oncogenicity, epithelial-mesenchymal transition and cancer stem cell-like behavior in human colorectal carcinoma.","Wang JJ, Chong QY, Sun XB, You ML, Pandey V, Chen YJ, Zhuang QS, Liu DX, Ma L, Wu ZS, Zhu T, Lobie PE","10.18632/oncotarget.21812",{"id":11500,"title":11501,"authors":11502,"journal":11503,"year":1360,"citationType":167,"doi":11504},824,"Comparison of the antigenicities of native human growth hormone (hGH) and three forms of recombinant hGHs using monoclonal antibodies.","Sawada J, Wada N, Irie M, Tokunaga-Doi T, Ohtsuka E, Ikehara M, Terao T","Molecular immunology","10.1016/0161-5890(86)90099-4",{"id":11506,"title":11507,"authors":11508,"journal":11509,"year":2522,"citationType":167,"doi":11510},825,"The 20-kilodalton (kDa) human growth hormone (hGH) differs from the 22-kDa hGH in the complex formation with cell surface hGH receptor and hGH-binding protein circulating in human plasma.","Wada M, Uchida H, Ikeda M, Tsunekawa B, Naito N, Banba S, Tanaka E, Hashimoto Y, Honjo M","Molecular endocrinology (Baltimore, Md.)","10.1210/mend.12.1.0054",{"id":11512,"title":11513,"authors":11514,"journal":3921,"year":260,"citationType":167,"doi":11515},826,"Chemical and enzymatic site specific PEGylation of hGH.","da Silva Freitas D, Mero A, Pasut G","10.1021/bc300594y",{"id":11517,"title":11518,"authors":11519,"journal":11520,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":11521},827,"Chemical and Enzymatic Site Specific PEGylation of hGH: The Stability and in vivo Activity of PEG-N-Terminal-hGH and PEG-Gln141-hGH Conjugates.","Grigoletto A, Mero A, Zanusso I, Schiavon O, Pasut G","Macromolecular bioscience","10.1002/mabi.201500282",{"id":11523,"title":11524,"authors":11525,"journal":1419,"year":1122,"citationType":167,"doi":11526},828,"Autocrine proliferative effects of hGH are maintained in primary cultures of human mammary carcinoma cells.","Chiesa J, Ferrer C, Arnould C, Vouyovitch CM, Diaz JJ, Gonzalez S, Mares P, Morel G, Wu ZS, Zhu T, Lobie PE, Mertani HC","10.1210/jc.2011-0473",{"id":11528,"title":11529,"authors":11530,"journal":11093,"year":1372,"citationType":167,"doi":11531},829,"High-resolution epitope mapping of hGH-receptor interactions by alanine-scanning mutagenesis.","Cunningham BC, Wells JA","10.1126/science.2471267",{"id":11533,"title":11534,"authors":11535,"journal":10731,"year":260,"citationType":167,"doi":11536},830,"Evaluation of the bioefficacy of a stabilized form of human growth hormone (SP-hGH).","Lee SB, Park H, Koh J, Lee H, Kim J","10.1055/s-0033-1345126",{"id":11538,"title":11539,"authors":11540,"journal":11541,"year":203,"citationType":167},831,"[A preliminary study on relationship between concentrations of human growth hormone in urine (HGH-U) and puberty].","Cao Y, Chen Y","Hua xi kou qiang yi xue za zhi = Huaxi kouqiang yixue zazhi = West China journal of stomatology",{"id":11543,"title":11544,"authors":11545,"journal":11546,"year":849,"citationType":167,"doi":11547},832,"Isolated human growth hormone deficiency due to the hGH-I gene deletion with (type IA) and without (the Israeli-type) hGH antibody formation during hGH therapy.","Nishi Y, Masuda H, Nishimura S, Kihara M, Suwa S, Tachibana K, Takeda M, Okada Y, Matsuda I","Acta endocrinologica","10.1530/acta.0.1220267",{"id":11549,"title":11550,"authors":11551,"journal":11552,"year":1196,"citationType":167,"doi":11553},833,"History of growth hormone therapy.","Blizzard RM","Indian journal of pediatrics","10.1007/s12098-011-0609-4",{"id":11555,"title":11556,"authors":11557,"journal":11558,"year":5181,"citationType":167,"doi":11559},834,"A screening test to detect HGH-antibodies in pituitary dwarfs treated with HGH preparation by the radio-immunoassay with double antibody technique.","Okada Y, Takahashi T, Kumahara Y","Endocrinologia japonica","10.1507/endocrj1954.24.589",{"id":2311,"title":11561,"authors":11562,"journal":6391,"year":1354,"citationType":167,"doi":11563},"Species variation in the binding of hGH to hepatic membranes.","Moore WV, Draper S, Hung CH","10.1159/000180022",{"id":2313,"title":11565,"authors":11566,"journal":10731,"year":1499,"citationType":167,"doi":11567},"Comparison of hGH binding to isolated rat liver macrophages and hepatocytes.","Kover K, Moore WV","10.1055/s-2007-1014740",{"id":2315,"title":11569,"authors":11570,"journal":11571,"year":1196,"citationType":167,"doi":11572},"Application of Analyte Harvesting Nanoparticle Technology to the Measurement of Urinary HGH in Healthy Individuals.","Luchini A, Tamburro D, Magni R, Fredolini C, Espina V, Bosch J, Garaci E, Petricoin EF 3rd, Liotta LA","Journal of sports medicine & doping studies","10.4172/2161-0673.1000e127",{"id":11574,"title":11575,"authors":11576,"journal":10631,"year":836,"citationType":167,"doi":11577},838,"20 kDa human growth hormone (20K hGH) stimulates insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) gene expression at lower concentrations than 22K hGH in hGH receptor-expressing Ba/F3 cells.","Yoshizato H, Tanaka M, Fujikawa T, Higashimoto Y, Shimizu A, Nakashima K","10.1507/endocrj.47.supplmarch_s37",{"id":11579,"title":11580,"authors":11581,"journal":11558,"year":774,"citationType":167,"doi":11582},839,"Short-term study of biosynthesized hGH in man.","Takano K, Hizuka N, Shizume K, Asakawa K, Kogawa M","10.1507/endocrj1954.30.79",{"id":11584,"title":11585,"authors":11586,"journal":1419,"year":736,"citationType":167,"doi":11587},840,"Serum concentration of 20K human growth hormone (20K hGH) measured by a specific enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Study Group of 20K hGH.","Tsushima T, Katoh Y, Miyachi Y, Chihara K, Teramoto A, Irie M, Hashimoto Y","10.1210/jcem.84.1.5395",{"id":11589,"title":11590,"authors":11591,"journal":11592,"year":5176,"citationType":167,"doi":11593},841,"[HGH secretion after oral application of L-dopa and L-carbidopa (author's transl)].","Schönberger W, Ziegler R, Brodt B, Grimm W","European journal of pediatrics","10.1007/BF00463737",{"id":11595,"title":11596,"authors":11597,"journal":7607,"year":173,"citationType":167,"doi":11598},842,"Potential parameters for the detection of hGH doping.","Kniess A, Ziegler E, Kratzsch J, Thieme D, Müller RK","10.1007/s00216-003-1926-x",{"id":11600,"title":11601,"authors":11602,"journal":11603,"year":736,"citationType":167,"doi":11604},843,"Plasma concentration of hGH and anti-hGH antibodies after subcutaneous administration of hGH for 3 weeks to immunosuppressed pigs.","Agersø H, Wilken M, Drustrup J, Haahr PM, Jørgensen KD","Journal of pharmacological and toxicological methods","10.1016/s1056-8719(99)00017-9",{"id":11606,"title":11607,"authors":11608,"journal":10631,"year":249,"citationType":167,"doi":11609},844,"Serum levels of 20 kilodalton human growth hormone (20K-hGH) in patients with acromegaly before and after treatment with octreotide and transsphenoidal surgery.","Murakami Y, Shimizu T, Yamamoto M, Kato Y","10.1507/endocrj.51.343",{"id":11611,"title":11612,"authors":11613,"journal":11558,"year":1314,"citationType":167,"doi":11614},845,"A comparison of subcutaneous and intramuscular administration of human growth hormone (hGH) and increased growth rate by daily injection of hGH in GH deficient children.","Takano K, Shizume K, Hibi I","10.1507/endocrj1954.35.477",{"id":8643,"title":11616,"authors":11617,"journal":11618,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":11619},"Growth hormone treatment for growth hormone deficiency and idiopathic short stature: new guidelines shaped by the presence and absence of evidence.","Grimberg A, Allen DB","Current opinion in pediatrics","10.1097/MOP.0000000000000505",{"id":8645,"title":11621,"authors":11622,"journal":1151,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":11623},"Short and Long-Term Effects of Growth Hormone in Children and Adolescents With GH Deficiency.","Ranke MB","10.3389/fendo.2021.720419",{"id":8647,"title":11625,"authors":11626,"journal":11627,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":11628},"Human growth hormone supplement promotes human lymphohematopoietic cell reconstitution in immunodeficient mice.","Zhang S, Wang G, Lyu Y, Tian H, Shu C, Chen B, Fan W, Xu W, Shan Y, He J, Yang YG, Hu Z, Sun L","Immunotherapy","10.2217/imt-2021-0278",{"id":8649,"title":11630,"authors":11631,"journal":516,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":11632},"Evidence for Pituitary Repression of the Human Growth Hormone-Related Placental Lactogen Genes and a Role for P Sequences.","Cattini PA, Jin Y","10.3390/ijms26094421",{"id":5866,"title":11634,"authors":11635,"journal":11636,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":11637},"Growth and Growth Hormone through the Ages: Art and Science.","Rogol AD, Reiter EO","Hormone research in paediatrics","10.1159/000526440",{"id":5869,"title":11639,"authors":11640,"journal":11641,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":11642},"Comparative study of human growth hormone measurements: impact on clinical interpretation.","Lotierzo M, Olaru-Soare F, Dupuy AM, Plawecki M, Paris F, Cristol JP","Clinical chemistry and laboratory medicine","10.1515/cclm-2021-1109",{"id":5872,"title":11644,"authors":11645,"journal":1990,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":11646},"Amino acid substitutions in human growth hormone affect secondary structure and receptor binding.","Rajkovic A, Kanchugal S, Abdurakhmanov E, Howard R, Wärmländer S, Erwin J, Barrera Saldaña HA, Gräslund A, Danielson H, Flores SC","10.1371/journal.pone.0282741",{"id":5875,"title":11648,"authors":11649,"journal":11650,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":11651},"Transgenic Artifacts Caused by Passenger Human Growth Hormone.","de Faudeur G, Brouwers B, Schuit F, Creemers JWM, Ramos-Molina B","Trends in endocrinology and metabolism: TEM","10.1016/j.tem.2018.05.005",{"id":5878,"title":11653,"authors":11654,"journal":11655,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":11656},"Autocrine/paracrine growth hormone in cancer progression.","Zhang X, Pandey V, Bhardwaj V, Zhu T, Lobie PE","Endocrine-related cancer","10.1530/ERC-23-0120",{"id":5881,"title":11658,"authors":11659,"journal":516,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":11660},"The 14-Kilodalton Human Growth Hormone Fragment a Potent Inhibitor of Angiogenesis and Tumor Metastasis.","Shaker BT, Ismail AA, Salih R, Hadj Kacem H, Rahmani M, Struman I, Bajou K","10.3390/ijms24108877",{"id":5884,"title":11662,"authors":11663,"journal":1366,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":11664},"Cotranslational folding of human growth hormone in vitro and in Escherichia coli.","Mermans D, Nicolaus F, Baygin A, von Heijne G","10.1002/1873-3468.14562",{"id":5956,"title":11666,"authors":11667,"journal":11668,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":11669},"Silica-collagen nanoformulations with extended human growth hormone release.","Villarruel LA, Brie B, Municoy S, Becú-Villalobos D, Desimone MF, Catalano PN","International journal of pharmaceutics","10.1016/j.ijpharm.2023.122662",{"id":5959,"title":11671,"authors":11672,"journal":3927,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":11673},"Thiol-Disulfide Exchange in Human Growth Hormone.","Chandrasekhar S, Moorthy BS, Xie R, Topp EM","10.1007/s11095-016-1879-3",{"id":5962,"title":11675,"authors":11676,"journal":11677,"year":3074,"citationType":167,"doi":11678},"Human growth hormone doping in sport.","Saugy M, Robinson N, Saudan C, Baume N, Avois L, Mangin P","British journal of sports medicine","10.1136/bjsm.2006.027573",{"id":5964,"title":11680,"authors":11681,"journal":11682,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":11683},"Pharmacogenomics applied to recombinant human growth hormone responses in children with short stature.","Stevens A, Perchard R, Garner T, Clayton P, Murray P","Reviews in endocrine & metabolic disorders","10.1007/s11154-021-09637-1",{"id":5967,"title":11685,"authors":11686,"journal":11687,"year":1122,"citationType":167},"Growth hormone therapy: emerging dilemmas.","Laron Z","Pediatric endocrinology reviews : PER",{"id":5970,"title":11689,"authors":11690,"journal":11618,"year":260,"citationType":167,"doi":11691},"Long-term effects of recombinant human growth hormone therapy in children with Prader-Willi syndrome.","Wolfgram PM, Carrel AL, Allen DB","10.1097/MOP.0b013e328362c7a2",{"id":5972,"title":11693,"authors":11694,"journal":3927,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":11695},"Structural Stability of Recombinant Human Growth Hormone (r-hGH) as a Function of Polymer Surface Properties.","Shah VR, Gupta PK","10.1007/s11095-018-2372-y",{"id":11697,"title":11698,"authors":11699,"journal":11700,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":11701},864,"Can Human Growth Hormone Accelerate Tendon and Ligament Injury Recovery?","Baumgarten KM, Sandhurst ES, Sun H","Sports health","10.1177/19417381241245938",{"id":11703,"title":11704,"authors":11705,"journal":11706,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":11707},865,"Buccal adhesive nanofibers containing human growth hormone for oral mucositis.","Choi JS, Han SH, Hyun C, Yoo HS","Journal of biomedical materials research. Part B, Applied biomaterials","10.1002/jbm.b.33487",{"id":11709,"title":11710,"authors":11711,"journal":6383,"year":249,"citationType":167},866,"Pegvisomant Pfizer/Sensus.","Goffin V, Touraine P",{"id":8906,"title":11713,"authors":11622,"journal":11687,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":11714},"Pediatric Growth Hormone Deficiency (GHD) in the Recombinant Human GH (rhGH) Era.","10.17458/per.vol16.2018.r.ghdeficiencyrecombinant",{"id":8909,"title":11716,"authors":11717,"journal":11718,"year":1152,"citationType":167,"doi":11719},"Drug testing in sport: hGH (human growth hormone).","Green GA","The virtual mentor : VM","10.1001/virtualmentor.2014.16.07.stas1-1407",{"id":8912,"title":11721,"authors":11722,"journal":4196,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":11723},"Sustained secretion of human growth hormone from TheraCyte devices encapsulated with PiggyBac-engineered retinal pigment epithelium cells.","Cecchi CR, Alsing S, Jesus GPP, Zacarias EA, Kjaer L, Clement MS, Kumagai-Braesch M, Corydon TJ, Bartolini P, Peroni CN, Aagaard L","10.1016/j.tice.2023.102095",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":532,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":11726},"2026-01-05T22:11:59.759282","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/hgh.avif","22","C13H11N5O3","137552069","MATGSRTSLLLAFGLLCLPWLQEGSAFPTIPLSRLFDNAMLRAHRLHQLAFDTYQEFEEAYIPKEQKYSFLQNPQTSLCFSESIPTPSNREETQQKSNLELLRISLLLIQSWLEPVQFLRSVFANSLVYGASDSNVYDLLKDLEEGIQTLMGRLEDGSPRTGQIFKQTYSKFDTNSHNDDALLKNYGLLYCFRKDMDKVETFLRIVQCRSVEGSCGF","C1=CC(=CC(=C1)OC2=NC(=NC3=C2NC=N3)N)CC(=O)O",[11734,11737,11740,11743,11747,11751],{"name":11735,"dose":11736,"frequency":1801,"route":7056},"Medical GHD Replacement (Starting)","0.15-0.3 mg/day (0.5-1 IU)",{"name":11738,"dose":11739,"frequency":1801,"route":7056},"Medical GHD Replacement (Maintenance)","0.4-0.8 mg/day (1.2-2.4 IU)",{"name":11741,"dose":11742,"frequency":1801,"route":7056},"Anti-Aging / Wellness (Conservative)","1-2 IU/day (0.33-0.67 mg)",{"name":11744,"dose":11745,"frequency":11746,"route":7056},"Body Recomposition (Moderate)","2-4 IU/day (0.67-1.33 mg)","Once or twice daily",{"name":11748,"dose":11749,"frequency":11750,"route":7056},"Performance (Higher - More Risk)","4-8 IU/day (1.33-2.67 mg)","Split twice daily",{"name":11752,"dose":11753,"frequency":11754,"route":7056},"Fasted Morning Protocol","2-4 IU","Morning on empty stomach",[11756,11757,11758,11759,11760,11761,11762],"Somatropin","Growth hormone","rhGH","Recombinant human growth hormone","Genotropin","Humatrope","Norditropin",[11764,11765,11766,11767],"Growth hormone deficiency (children and adults)","Growth disorders (Turner syndrome, Prader-Willi syndrome, small for gestational age, idiopathic short stature)","Body composition in adult GH deficiency","GH/IGF-1 decline with aging (unproven 'anti-aging' use)",{"human":11769,"animal":11770,"inVitro":23,"uncertain":11771},"Somatropin is FDA-approved for pediatric growth disorders (GH deficiency, Turner syndrome, Prader-Willi syndrome, small for gestational age, idiopathic short stature, SHOX deficiency) and adult GH deficiency, with extensive clinical trial and post-marketing evidence. RCTs show improved height velocity in children and improved body composition, bone and cardiovascular risk markers in adults with GH deficiency.","Animal studies established the GH/IGF-1 axis biology underlying clinical use.","Use for 'anti-aging', athletic performance enhancement or bodybuilding is not FDA-approved; safety in these settings is not established and off-label use carries documented risks (fluid retention, glucose intolerance, arthralgia).",[11773,11777],{"finding":11774,"source":11775,"year":3074,"link":11776,"evidenceLevel":46},"FDA-approved prescribing information documents efficacy and approved indications of somatropin (Genotropin) across pediatric and adult GH-deficiency indications.","FDA-approved prescribing information (Genotropin label, DailyMed)","https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/lookup.cfm?setid=ffebf88b-d257-4542-9808-74d9b7167765",{"finding":11778,"source":11779,"year":478,"link":11780,"evidenceLevel":46},"Weekly long-acting somatrogon (NGENLA) was approved for pediatric GH deficiency based on a phase 3 trial versus daily somatropin.","FDA multidisciplinary review (BLA 761184)","https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/nda/2023/761184Orig1s000MultidisciplineR.pdf","GH therapy requires careful titration and monitoring (IGF-1, glucose, bone age in children); long-term safety data for adult replacement are still maturing; 'anti-aging' or performance use is unapproved and potentially harmful; cost and access are barriers.","Administered by subcutaneous injection (daily for most somatropin products; weekly long-acting formulations now approved). After SC injection, plasma GH peaks within ~2-6 h and IGF-1 peaks ~20 h later; the elimination half-life is short (on the order of hours), which drives daily dosing. Effects are mediated primarily via hepatic and local IGF-1.",[11784,11787],{"question":11785,"answer":11786},"Is HGH legal to buy for anti-aging?","Somatropin is a prescription drug; use without a prescription (including for anti-aging or athletics) is illegal in most jurisdictions and not medically indicated.",{"question":11788,"answer":11789},"What is HGH used for medically?","GH deficiency in children and adults and certain growth disorders, per FDA-approved labeling.",{"id":7761,"name":11791,"slug":11792,"description":11793,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":28,"views":8063,"shortDescription":11794,"researchStatus":10447,"peptideBenefits":11795,"benefits":11832,"peptideSideEffects":11851,"sideEffects":11871,"dosage":11881,"mechanism":11882,"safetyNote":11883,"athleteWarning":11884,"chemicalMakeup":11885,"citations":11886,"research":12013,"statsCache":12014,"imageUrl":12016,"molecularWeight":12017,"molecularFormula":12018,"pubchemId":12019,"sequence":12020,"halfLife":12021,"administrationRoute":540,"casNumber":12022,"smiles":12023,"totalMentions":5120,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"protocols":12024,"aliases":12038,"researchAreas":12042,"evidence":12046,"keyStudies":12051,"limitations":12059,"pharmacology":12060,"faqs":12061,"lastReviewed":359},"Ipamorelin","ipamorelin","Ipamorelin is a growth hormone-releasing peptide (GHRP) that tells your pituitary gland to produce more growth hormone. It's considered one of the \"cleanest\" options in its class because it specifically targets growth hormone without significantly affecting other hormones. **Why choose Ipamorelin?** Unlike other growth hormone peptides that can spike cortisol (stress hormone) or increase appetite dramatically, Ipamorelin is highly selective. It gives you the growth hormone boost without as many unwanted side effects. **What the research shows:** • Stimulates natural, pulsatile growth hormone release • Minimal impact on cortisol, prolactin, or appetite • May support lean muscle development and fat loss • Could improve sleep quality and recovery • Often combined with CJC-1295 for enhanced effects **How it works:** Ipamorelin mimics ghrelin (the \"hunger hormone\") but is much more selective. It binds to growth hormone secretagogue receptors in your pituitary, triggering GH release in a pattern similar to your body's natural rhythms. **Typical use:** Injected subcutaneously, often 2-3 times daily or before bed to enhance natural nighttime GH pulses. **Important to know:** Ipamorelin is banned by WADA and not FDA-approved. While research is promising, large-scale human clinical trials are limited. --- **Sources:** Raun K, et al. (1998) European Journal of Endocrinology | Anderson LL, et al. (2009) Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics","Selective growth hormone releasing peptide with minimal side effects",[11796,11798,11799,11801,11803,11805,11806,11808,11810,11811,11813,11817,11819,11821,11823,11825,11827,11829],{"id":8669,"benefit":11797,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},"Increases lean muscle mass",{"id":10902,"benefit":6271,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},{"id":10907,"benefit":11800,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},"Improves sleep",{"id":10911,"benefit":11802,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},"Collagen production.",{"id":8442,"benefit":11804,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Muscle protein synthesis",{"id":4380,"benefit":9954,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":997,"benefit":11807,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Collagen turnover support",{"id":8440,"benefit":11809,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Clean GH stimulation",{"id":305,"benefit":9952,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":4386,"benefit":11812,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Body composition changes",{"id":11814,"benefit":11815,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":11816,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},468,"GH Selectivity: First selective GHRP; no cortisol/ACTH release","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9849822/",{"id":11818,"benefit":11797,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},776,{"id":11820,"benefit":6271,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},777,{"id":11822,"benefit":11800,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},778,{"id":11824,"benefit":11802,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},779,{"id":10316,"benefit":11826,"benefitCategory":60,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},"Selective GH release without hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activation",{"id":10322,"benefit":11828,"benefitCategory":6295,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},"Reduced side effect profile compared to other GH secretagogues",{"id":10327,"benefit":11830,"benefitCategory":11831,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},"Comparable efficacy to GHRP-6 for GH release","efficacy",[11833,11834,11835,11836,11837,11838,11839,11840,11841,11842,11843,11844,11845,11846,11847,11848,11849,11850],{"id":8669,"benefit":11797,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},{"id":10902,"benefit":6271,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},{"id":10907,"benefit":11800,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},{"id":10911,"benefit":11802,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},{"id":8442,"benefit":11804,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":4380,"benefit":9954,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":997,"benefit":11807,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":8440,"benefit":11809,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":305,"benefit":9952,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":4386,"benefit":11812,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":11814,"benefit":11815,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":11816,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":11818,"benefit":11797,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},{"id":11820,"benefit":6271,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},{"id":11822,"benefit":11800,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},{"id":11824,"benefit":11802,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},{"id":10316,"benefit":11826,"benefitCategory":60,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},{"id":10322,"benefit":11828,"benefitCategory":6295,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},{"id":10327,"benefit":11830,"benefitCategory":11831,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},[11852,11854,11857,11860,11863,11865,11867,11868,11870],{"id":3957,"sideEffect":11853,"description":23,"severity":2597,"frequency":4117,"source":24,"sourceType":24,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":23,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Does NOT stimulate ACTH or cortisol (unique selectivity profile)",{"id":11855,"sideEffect":11856,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":23,"source":44,"sourceType":44,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":11816,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},313,"No ACTH/cortisol release",{"id":11858,"sideEffect":1900,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":23,"source":44,"sourceType":44,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":11859,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},314,"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25331030/",{"id":11861,"sideEffect":11862,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":23,"source":44,"sourceType":44,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":11859,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},315,"Overall AE incidence",{"id":9549,"sideEffect":11864,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Mild dizziness",{"id":9484,"sideEffect":11866,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Rare local irritation",{"id":9546,"sideEffect":112,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":240,"sideEffect":398,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":11869,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":7820,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":11791,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":23,"management":2616,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},"87.5% vs 94.8% 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mcg 1-3x/day","Selective GH secretagogue with minimal side effects","Research compound only. Forbidden in sport. May cause temporary flushing, mild head pressure, or minor water retention.","WADA BANNED - Prohibited in competitive sports as selective growth hormone releasing peptide","Pentapeptide Aib-His-D-2-Nal-D-Phe-Lys-NH₂",[11887,11891,11896,11901,11906,11912,11917,11922,11927,11932,11937,11943,11949,11955,11961,11965,11970,11975,11977,11979,11984,11989,11994,11999,12004,12006,12011],{"id":7755,"title":11888,"authors":155,"journal":7022,"year":458,"citationType":158,"doi":11889,"researchPaperId":11890},"Ipamorelin: Selective GH Secretagogue for Clinical Applications","10.1007/s12020-024-03817-6","pubmed_39043357",{"id":5088,"title":11892,"authors":155,"journal":11893,"year":451,"citationType":3339,"doi":11894,"researchPaperId":11895},"Ipamorelin for Postoperative Ileus: Phase II Trial Results","Surgery","10.1016/j.surg.2020.06.029","pubmed_32801950",{"id":11897,"title":11898,"authors":11899,"journal":1048,"year":736,"citationType":167,"doi":11900},950,"Ipamorelin, a new growth-hormone-releasing peptide, induces longitudinal bone growth in rats.","Johansen PB, Nowak J, Skjaerbaek C, Flyvbjerg A, Andreassen TT, Wilken M, Orskov H","10.1054/ghir.1999.9998",{"id":11902,"title":11903,"authors":11904,"journal":10625,"year":2522,"citationType":167,"doi":11905},951,"Ipamorelin, the first selective growth hormone secretagogue.","Raun K, Hansen BS, Johansen NL, Thøgersen H, Madsen K, Ankersen M, Andersen PH","10.1530/eje.0.1390552",{"id":11907,"title":11908,"authors":11909,"journal":11910,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":11911},952,"The influence of ghrelin agonist ipamorelin acetate on the hypothalamic-pituitary-testicular axis in a cichlid fish, Oreochromis mossambicus.","Gouda M, Ganesh CB","Animal reproduction science","10.1016/j.anireprosci.2024.107550",{"id":11913,"title":11914,"authors":11915,"journal":10313,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":11916},953,"The growth hormone secretagogue receptor 1a agonists, anamorelin and ipamorelin, inhibit cisplatin-induced weight loss in ferrets: Anamorelin also exhibits anti-emetic effects via a central mechanism.","Lu Z, Ngan MP, Liu JYH, Yang L, Tu L, Chan SW, Giuliano C, Lovati E, Pietra C, Rudd JA","10.1016/j.physbeh.2024.114644",{"id":11918,"title":11919,"authors":11920,"journal":3927,"year":736,"citationType":167,"doi":11921},954,"Pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic modeling of ipamorelin, a growth hormone releasing peptide, in human volunteers.","Gobburu JV, Agersø H, Jusko WJ, Ynddal L","10.1023/a:1018955126402",{"id":11923,"title":11924,"authors":11925,"journal":1048,"year":203,"citationType":167,"doi":11926},955,"The growth hormone secretagogue ipamorelin counteracts glucocorticoid-induced decrease in bone formation of adult rats.","Andersen NB, Malmlöf K, Johansen PB, Andreassen TT, Ørtoft G, Oxlund H","10.1054/ghir.2001.0239",{"id":11928,"title":11929,"authors":11930,"journal":3171,"year":166,"citationType":167,"doi":11931},956,"Influence of chronic treatment with the growth hormone secretagogue Ipamorelin, in young female rats: somatotroph response in vitro.","Jiménez-Reina L, Cañete R, de la Torre MJ, Bernal G","10.14670/HH-17.707",{"id":11933,"title":11934,"authors":11935,"journal":4246,"year":1384,"citationType":167,"doi":11936},957,"Efficacy of ipamorelin, a novel ghrelin mimetic, in a rodent model of postoperative ileus.","Venkova K, Mann W, Nelson R, Greenwood-Van Meerveld B","10.1124/jpet.108.149211",{"id":11938,"title":11939,"authors":11940,"journal":11941,"year":2522,"citationType":167,"doi":11942},958,"Pharmacokinetic evaluation of ipamorelin and other peptidyl growth hormone secretagogues with emphasis on nasal absorption.","Johansen PB, Hansen KT, Andersen JV, Johansen NL","Xenobiotica; the fate of foreign compounds in biological systems","10.1080/004982598238976",{"id":11944,"title":11945,"authors":11946,"journal":11947,"year":2522,"citationType":167,"doi":11948},959,"A new series of highly potent growth hormone-releasing peptides derived from ipamorelin.","Ankersen M, Johansen NL, Madsen K, Hansen BS, Raun K, Nielsen KK, Thogersen H, Hansen TK, Peschke B, Lau J, Lundt BF, Andersen PH","Journal of medicinal chemistry","10.1021/jm9801962",{"id":11950,"title":11951,"authors":11952,"journal":11953,"year":1196,"citationType":167,"doi":11954},960,"Efficacy of ipamorelin, a ghrelin mimetic, on gastric dysmotility in a rodent model of postoperative ileus.","Greenwood-Van Meerveld B, Tyler K, Mohammadi E, Pietra C","Journal of experimental pharmacology","10.2147/JEP.S35396",{"id":11956,"title":11957,"authors":11958,"journal":11959,"year":1152,"citationType":167,"doi":11960},961,"Prospective, randomized, controlled, proof-of-concept study of the Ghrelin mimetic ipamorelin for the management of postoperative ileus in bowel resection patients.","Beck DE, Sweeney WB, McCarter MD, Ipamorelin 201 Study Group","International journal of colorectal disease","10.1007/s00384-014-2030-8",{"id":11962,"title":11963,"authors":11964,"journal":209,"year":249,"citationType":167},962,"Mechanism of ipamorelin-evoked insulin release from the pancreas of normal and diabetic rats.","Adeghate E, Ponery AS",{"id":11966,"title":11967,"authors":11968,"journal":780,"year":203,"citationType":167,"doi":11969},963,"Highly potent growth hormone secretagogues: hybrids of NN703 and ipamorelin.","Hansen TK, Ankersen M, Raun K, Hansen BS","10.1016/s0960-894x(01)00345-6",{"id":11971,"title":11972,"authors":11973,"journal":3142,"year":836,"citationType":167,"doi":11974},964,"The GH secretagogues ipamorelin and GH-releasing peptide-6 increase bone mineral content in adult female rats.","Svensson J, Lall S, Dickson SL, Bengtsson BA, Rømer J, Ahnfelt-Rønne I, Ohlsson C, Jansson JO","10.1677/joe.0.1650569",{"id":11976,"title":10676,"authors":10677,"journal":10678,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":10679},965,{"id":11978,"title":10567,"authors":10568,"journal":3452,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":10569},966,{"id":11980,"title":11981,"authors":11982,"journal":1048,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":11983},967,"Analysis of new growth promoting black market products.","Krug O, Thomas A, Malerød-Fjeld H, Dehnes Y, Laussmann T, Feldmann I, Sickmann A, Thevis M","10.1016/j.ghir.2018.05.001",{"id":11985,"title":11986,"authors":11987,"journal":11953,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":11988},968,"Attenuation of Visceral and Somatic Nociception by Ghrelin Mimetics.","N Mohammadi E, Louwies T, Pietra C, Northrup SR, Greenwood-Van Meerveld B","10.2147/JEP.S249747",{"id":11990,"title":11991,"authors":11992,"journal":773,"year":203,"citationType":167,"doi":11993},969,"Growth hormone (GH)-independent stimulation of adiposity by GH secretagogues.","Lall S, Tung LY, Ohlsson C, Jansson JO, Dickson SL","10.1006/bbrc.2000.4065",{"id":11995,"title":11996,"authors":11997,"journal":1048,"year":1384,"citationType":167,"doi":11998},970,"Growth hormone and growth hormone secretagogue effects on nitrogen balance and urea synthesis in steroid treated rats.","Aagaard NK, Grøfte T, Greisen J, Malmlöf K, Johansen PB, Grønbaek H, Ørskov H, Tygstrup N, Vilstrup H","10.1016/j.ghir.2009.01.001",{"id":12000,"title":12001,"authors":12002,"journal":11947,"year":2522,"citationType":167,"doi":12003},971,"Novel orally active growth hormone secretagogues.","Hansen TK, Ankersen M, Hansen BS, Raun K, Nielsen KK, Lau J, Peschke B, Lundt BF, Thøgersen H, Johansen NL, Madsen K, Andersen PH","10.1021/jm980197u",{"id":12005,"title":10739,"authors":10740,"journal":3452,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":10741},972,{"id":12007,"title":12008,"authors":12009,"journal":3452,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":12010},973,"Glycine-modified growth hormone secretagogues identified in seized doping material.","Gajda PM, Holm NB, Hoej LJ, Rasmussen BS, Dalsgaard PW, Reitzel LA, Linnet K","10.1002/dta.2489",{"id":12012,"title":10735,"authors":10736,"journal":3938,"year":1196,"citationType":167,"doi":10737},974,[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":5120,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":12015},"2026-01-05T22:12:18.131097","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/ipamorelin.webp","711.85","C38H49N9O5","9831659","Aib-His-D-2Nal-D-Phe-Lys-NH2","~2 hours","170851-70-4","CC(C)(C(=O)N[C@@H](CC1=CN=CN1)C(=O)N[C@H](CC2=CC3=CC=CC=C3C=C2)C(=O)N[C@H](CC4=CC=CC=C4)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCCN)C(=O)N)N",[12025,12028,12030,12033,12036],{"name":12026,"dose":6000,"frequency":12027,"route":555},"General Health & Longevity","1x daily before bed",{"name":10160,"dose":6452,"frequency":12029,"route":555},"2x daily (morning, pre-workout)",{"name":1588,"dose":12031,"frequency":12032,"route":555},"200-250mcg","2-3x daily (morning, pre/post workout)",{"name":12034,"dose":6000,"frequency":12035,"route":555},"Sleep & Recovery","1x daily 30min before bed",{"name":1581,"dose":12031,"frequency":12037,"route":555},"1-2x daily (morning, bedtime)",[11791,12039,12040,12041],"NN703","ipamorelin acetate","growth hormone releasing peptide (GHRP) analog",[10175,12043,12044,12045],"Anabolic and metabolic research","Gastrointestinal motility (investigational)","Aging and sarcopenia (investigational)",{"human":12047,"animal":12048,"inVitro":12049,"uncertain":12050},"A human pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic study in healthy volunteers demonstrated dose-dependent GH release after ipamorelin administration and characterized its pharmacokinetics. No large clinical trials support its use for muscle growth or fat loss.","Rodent and other animal studies show ipamorelin is a potent, selective GH secretagogue acting through the ghrelin/growth hormone secretagogue receptor (GHS-R1a), with less effect on ACTH and cortisol than earlier GHRPs.","Receptor-binding and functional assays confirm selective agonist activity at the growth hormone secretagogue receptor (GHS-R1a) with little activity at other tested receptors.","Bodybuilding use of ipamorelin - often combined with GHRH analogs such as CJC-1295 or sermorelin - for muscle gain and fat loss is based on the GH secretagogue mechanism and limited human PK data rather than clinical efficacy trials.",[12052,12056],{"finding":12053,"source":12054,"year":736,"link":12055,"evidenceLevel":46},"Pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic modeling in healthy volunteers described ipamorelin's pharmacokinetics and dose-dependent stimulation of growth hormone secretion.","Human pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic study (Pharmaceutical Research)","https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1018955126402",{"finding":12057,"source":12058,"year":23,"link":23,"evidenceLevel":50},"Preclinical characterization identified ipamorelin (NN703) as a selective, potent GH secretagogue with an improved endocrine profile relative to earlier GHRPs.","Preclinical studies (Novo Nordisk development program)","Published human data are essentially limited to single-dose PK/PD studies from the 1990s development program. No randomized trials demonstrate meaningful clinical benefit for muscle growth, body composition, or aging, and long-term safety of chronic secretagogue use is unknown. The peptide is not FDA approved.","Ipamorelin is a synthetic pentapeptide GH secretagogue that acts as a selective agonist at the ghrelin/growth hormone secretagogue receptor (GHS-R1a). In human PK studies it was administered by injection and produced dose-dependent GH pulses with rapid onset. Half-life values derive mainly from PK modeling literature and vary with assay and route.",[12062,12065,12068],{"question":12063,"answer":12064},"Does ipamorelin build muscle?","It stimulates GH secretion in human PK studies, but no clinical trials demonstrate muscle growth; muscle-building claims rest on mechanism and anecdote.",{"question":12066,"answer":12067},"Is ipamorelin FDA approved?","No. It is an investigational compound (originally NN703, Novo Nordisk) that was never approved for any indication.",{"question":12069,"answer":12070},"What are the risks?","As a GH secretagogue, chronic use carries theoretical risks from sustained GH/IGF-1 elevation; long-term human safety data are lacking.",{"id":9549,"name":12072,"slug":12073,"description":12074,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":28,"views":7440,"shortDescription":12075,"researchStatus":12076,"peptideBenefits":12077,"benefits":12101,"peptideSideEffects":12112,"sideEffects":12140,"dosage":12152,"mechanism":12153,"safetyNote":12154,"athleteWarning":12155,"chemicalMakeup":12156,"citations":12157,"research":12388,"statsCache":12389,"imageUrl":12391,"molecularWeight":12392,"molecularFormula":12393,"pubchemId":12394,"halfLife":12395,"administrationRoute":4541,"casNumber":12396,"smiles":12397,"totalMentions":2541,"dataCompleteness":1916,"hasResearchData":28,"protocols":12398,"aliases":12413,"researchAreas":12420,"evidence":12425,"keyStudies":12430,"limitations":12438,"pharmacology":12439,"faqs":12440,"lastReviewed":359},"MK-677 (Ibutamoren)","mk-677","MK-677 (Ibutamoren) isn't technically a peptide — it's a small molecule you can take as a pill that mimics ghrelin, your \"hunger hormone.\" The result? Your body produces more growth hormone naturally, without injections. **Why is that significant?** Most growth hormone-releasing compounds require injections. MK-677 is one of the few that works orally, making it much more convenient. One daily dose keeps growth hormone and IGF-1 elevated for 24 hours. **What the research shows:** • Increases growth hormone and IGF-1 levels significantly • May improve sleep quality (GH is released during deep sleep) • Could help preserve muscle mass and bone density • Studied for elderly populations with age-related decline • Does NOT suppress your natural GH production **The trade-off:** Because MK-677 mimics ghrelin, it increases appetite — sometimes significantly. It can also cause water retention and may affect blood sugar in some people. **Clinical research:** Studied in clinical trials for muscle wasting, hip fracture recovery, and growth hormone deficiency, but never received FDA approval. **Important to know:** MK-677 is banned by WADA and not approved for any medical use. Long-term safety data is limited. --- **Sources:** Nass R, et al. (2008) Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism | Murphy MG, et al. (1998) Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism","Oral growth hormone secretagogue mimicking ghrelin","Research compound - Growth hormone secretagogue",[12078,12080,12081,12083,12086,12088,12089,12092,12095,12098],{"id":12079,"benefit":10212,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},107,{"id":9444,"benefit":9954,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":108,"benefit":12082,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Bone density",{"id":12084,"benefit":12085,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},106,"Growth hormone 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edema","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28400207/",{"id":3336,"sideEffect":12121,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Lethargy",{"id":1683,"sideEffect":10005,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":5853,"sideEffect":12124,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Elevated blood sugar",{"id":206,"sideEffect":398,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":12126,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":12127,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":12072,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":6634,"management":12128,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},"Very common (>10%)","pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2757071/","Self-limiting; subsides within months",{"id":211,"sideEffect":1878,"description":23,"severity":1879,"frequency":12130,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":12131,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":12072,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":11450,"management":12132,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},"Common (~10%)","pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov","Transient; dose reduction if necessary",{"id":216,"sideEffect":7472,"description":23,"severity":1669,"frequency":12134,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":12131,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":12072,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":8149,"management":12135,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},"Common (avg 5 mg/dL increase)","Monitor glucose; caution in diabetics",{"id":221,"sideEffect":7466,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":12137,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":7820,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":12072,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":6643,"management":12138,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Rare (6.5% elderly hip fracture trial)","Avoid in elderly with CV risk",{"id":9949,"sideEffect":9605,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},[12141,12142,12143,12144,12145,12146,12147,12148,12149,12150,12151],{"id":74,"sideEffect":12114,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":23,"source":44,"sourceType":44,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":12115,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":77,"sideEffect":11442,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":23,"source":44,"sourceType":44,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":12094,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":1239,"sideEffect":12118,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":23,"source":44,"sourceType":44,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":12119,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":3336,"sideEffect":12121,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":1683,"sideEffect":10005,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":5853,"sideEffect":12124,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":206,"sideEffect":398,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":12126,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":12127,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":12072,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":6634,"management":12128,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},{"id":211,"sideEffect":1878,"description":23,"severity":1879,"frequency":12130,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":12131,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":12072,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":11450,"management":12132,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},{"id":216,"sideEffect":7472,"description":23,"severity":1669,"frequency":12134,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":12131,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":12072,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":8149,"management":12135,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},{"id":221,"sideEffect":7466,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":12137,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":7820,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":12072,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":6643,"management":12138,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":9949,"sideEffect":9605,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"10-25 mg Daily","Oral ghrelin mimetic and GH secretagogue","Research compound only. Not approved for human use.","WADA BANNED - Prohibited in competitive sports as growth hormone secretagogue","Non-peptide ghrelin mimetic, spiropiperidine compound",[12158,12162,12166,12171,12177,12183,12189,12191,12197,12202,12208,12213,12215,12220,12225,12230,12235,12240,12245,12250,12255,12261,12267,12272,12278,12284,12289,12294,12299,12304,12309,12315,12320,12325,12331,12336,12341,12343,12345,12350,12355,12360,12365,12370,12375,12377,12383],{"id":16,"title":12159,"authors":155,"journal":7022,"year":157,"citationType":158,"doi":12160,"researchPaperId":12161},"Ibutamoren (MK-677): Oral GH Secretagogue Review","10.1007/s12020-025-04298-1","pubmed_40882886",{"id":1217,"title":12163,"authors":155,"journal":5500,"year":437,"citationType":1024,"doi":12164,"researchPaperId":12165},"MK-677 Effects on Body Composition and Sleep Quality","10.3389/fendo.2022.1019178","pubmed_36354265",{"id":12167,"title":12168,"authors":12169,"journal":1419,"year":2522,"citationType":167,"doi":12170},1232,"MK-677, an orally active growth hormone secretagogue, reverses diet-induced catabolism.","Murphy MG, Plunkett LM, Gertz BJ, He W, Wittreich J, Polvino WM, Clemmons DR","10.1210/jcem.83.2.4551",{"id":12172,"title":12173,"authors":12174,"journal":12175,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":12176},1233,"LGD-4033 and MK-677 use impacts body composition, circulating biomarkers, and skeletal muscle androgenic hormone and receptor content: A case report.","Cardaci TD, Machek SB, Wilburn DT, Heileson JL, Harris DR, Cintineo HP, Willoughby DS","Experimental physiology","10.1113/EP090741",{"id":12178,"title":12179,"authors":12180,"journal":12181,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":12182},1234,"Hepatotoxicity induced by MK-677.","Cobani E, Amin MS, Hasso M, Kumbar L","BMJ case reports","10.1136/bcr-2025-265728",{"id":12184,"title":12185,"authors":12186,"journal":12187,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":12188},1235,"Effect of the Orally Active Growth Hormone Secretagogue MK-677 on Somatic Growth in Rats.","Lee J, Kwon A, Chae HW, Lee WJ, Kim TH, Kim HS","Yonsei medical journal","10.3349/ymj.2018.59.10.1174",{"id":12190,"title":10542,"authors":10543,"journal":10544,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":10545},1236,{"id":12192,"title":12193,"authors":12194,"journal":12195,"year":736,"citationType":167,"doi":12196},1237,"Oral administration of the growth hormone secretagogue MK-677 increases markers of bone turnover in healthy and functionally impaired elderly adults. The MK-677 Study Group.","Murphy MG, Bach MA, Plotkin D, Bolognese J, Ng J, Krupa D, Cerchio K, Gertz BJ","Journal of bone and mineral research : the official journal of the American Society for Bone and Mineral Research","10.1359/jbmr.1999.14.7.1182",{"id":12198,"title":12199,"authors":12200,"journal":1419,"year":203,"citationType":167,"doi":12201},1238,"Effect of alendronate and MK-677 (a growth hormone secretagogue), individually and in combination, on markers of bone turnover and bone mineral density in postmenopausal osteoporotic women.","Murphy MG, Weiss S, McClung M, Schnitzer T, Cerchio K, Connor J, Krupa D, Gertz BJ, MK-677/Alendronate Study Group","10.1210/jcem.86.3.7294",{"id":12203,"title":12204,"authors":12205,"journal":12206,"year":723,"citationType":167,"doi":12207},1239,"Prolonged oral treatment with MK-677, a novel growth hormone secretagogue, improves sleep quality in man.","Copinschi G, Leproult R, Van Onderbergen A, Caufriez A, Cole KY, Schilling LM, Mendel CM, De Lepeleire I, Bolognese JA, Van Cauter E","Neuroendocrinology","10.1159/000127249",{"id":12209,"title":12210,"authors":12211,"journal":4155,"year":229,"citationType":167,"doi":12212},1240,"Growth hormone secretagogue MK-677: no clinical effect on AD progression in a randomized trial.","Sevigny JJ, Ryan JM, van Dyck CH, Peng Y, Lines CR, Nessly ML, MK-677 Protocol 30 Study Group","10.1212/01.wnl.0000335163.88054.e7",{"id":12214,"title":7532,"authors":7533,"journal":7534,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":7535},1241,{"id":12216,"title":12217,"authors":12218,"journal":12195,"year":2522,"citationType":167,"doi":12219},1242,"Treatment with the oral growth hormone secretagogue MK-677 increases markers of bone formation and bone resorption in obese young males.","Svensson J, Ohlsson C, Jansson JO, Murphy G, Wyss D, Krupa D, Cerchio K, Polvino W, Gertz B, Baylink D, Mohan S, Bengtsson BA","10.1359/jbmr.1998.13.7.1158",{"id":12221,"title":12222,"authors":12223,"journal":1419,"year":723,"citationType":167,"doi":12224},1243,"Oral administration of growth hormone (GH) releasing peptide-mimetic MK-677 stimulates the GH/insulin-like growth factor-I axis in selected GH-deficient adults.","Chapman IM, Pescovitz OH, Murphy G, Treep T, Cerchio KA, Krupa D, Gertz B, Polvino WJ, Skiles EH, Pezzoli SS, Thorner MO","10.1210/jcem.82.10.4297",{"id":12226,"title":12227,"authors":12228,"journal":10601,"year":736,"citationType":167,"doi":12229},1244,"Discrepancy between serum leptin values and total body fat in response to the oral growth hormone secretagogue MK-677.","Svensson J, Carlsson B, Carlsson LM, Jansson JO, Bengtsson BA","10.1046/j.1365-2265.1999.00667.x",{"id":12231,"title":12232,"authors":12233,"journal":1048,"year":173,"citationType":167,"doi":12234},1245,"The effect of treatment with the oral growth hormone (GH) secretagogue MK-677 on GH isoforms.","Svensson J, Boguszewski CL, Shibata F, Carlsson B, Carlsson LM, Bengtsson BA","10.1016/s1096-6374(02)00138-7",{"id":12236,"title":12237,"authors":12238,"journal":1419,"year":736,"citationType":167,"doi":12239},1246,"Treatment of obese subjects with the oral growth hormone secretagogue MK-677 affects serum concentrations of several lipoproteins, but not lipoprotein(a).","Svensson J, Jansson JO, Ottosson M, Johannsson G, Taskinen MR, Wiklund O, Bengtsson BA","10.1210/jcem.84.6.5799",{"id":12241,"title":12242,"authors":12243,"journal":1419,"year":2522,"citationType":167,"doi":12244},1247,"Two-month treatment of obese subjects with the oral growth hormone (GH) secretagogue MK-677 increases GH secretion, fat-free mass, and energy expenditure.","Svensson J, Lönn L, Jansson JO, Murphy G, Wyss D, Krupa D, Cerchio K, Polvino W, Gertz B, Boseaus I, Sjöström L, Bengtsson BA","10.1210/jcem.83.2.4539",{"id":12246,"title":12247,"authors":12248,"journal":1419,"year":750,"citationType":167,"doi":12249},1248,"Stimulation of the growth hormone (GH)-insulin-like growth factor I axis by daily oral administration of a GH secretogogue (MK-677) in healthy elderly subjects.","Chapman IM, Bach MA, Van Cauter E, Farmer M, Krupa D, Taylor AM, Schilling LM, Cole KY, Skiles EH, Pezzoli SS, Hartman ML, Veldhuis JD, Gormley GJ, Thorner MO","10.1210/jcem.81.12.8954023",{"id":12251,"title":12252,"authors":12253,"journal":3452,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":12254},1249,"Detection of the growth hormone secretagogue MK-0677 in equine hair following oral administration.","Viljanto M, Cutler C, Taylor P, Habershon-Butcher J, Gray B","10.1002/dta.3406",{"id":12256,"title":12257,"authors":12258,"journal":12259,"year":723,"citationType":167,"doi":12260},1250,"Determination of a novel growth hormone secretagogue (MK-677) in human plasma at picogram levels by liquid chromatography with atmospheric pressure chemical ionization tandem mass spectrometry.","Constanzer ML, Chavez-Eng CM, Matuszewski BK","Journal of chromatography. B, Biomedical sciences and applications","10.1016/s0378-4347(97)00035-2",{"id":12262,"title":12263,"authors":12264,"journal":12265,"year":2522,"citationType":167,"doi":12266},1251,"Orally active growth hormone secretagogues.","Patchett AA, Smith RG, Wyvratt MJ","Pharmaceutical biotechnology","10.1007/0-306-47384-4_23",{"id":12268,"title":12269,"authors":12270,"journal":1419,"year":750,"citationType":167,"doi":12271},1252,"Effects of a 7-day treatment with a novel, orally active, growth hormone (GH) secretagogue, MK-677, on 24-hour GH profiles, insulin-like growth factor I, and adrenocortical function in normal young men.","Copinschi G, Van Onderbergen A, L'Hermite-Balériaux M, Mendel CM, Caufriez A, Leproult R, Bolognese JA, De Smet M, Thorner MO, Van Cauter E","10.1210/jcem.81.8.8768828",{"id":12273,"title":12274,"authors":12275,"journal":12276,"year":1384,"citationType":167,"doi":12277},1253,"Sarcopenia and the elusive fountain of youth.","Hanauer SB","Nature clinical practice. Gastroenterology & hepatology","10.1038/ncpgasthep1320",{"id":12279,"title":12280,"authors":12281,"journal":12282,"year":1624,"citationType":167,"doi":12283},1254,"Knowing the minimal detectable dose can facilitate the interpretation of a hair test result: II. Case example with ibutamoren (MK-677), a growth hormone secretagogue.","Kintz P, Gheddar L","Clinica chimica acta; international journal of clinical chemistry","10.1016/j.cca.2025.120578",{"id":12285,"title":12286,"authors":12287,"journal":6989,"year":243,"citationType":167,"doi":12288},1255,"Development of growth hormone secretagogues.","Smith RG","10.1210/er.2004-0019",{"id":12290,"title":12291,"authors":12292,"journal":6989,"year":723,"citationType":167,"doi":12293},1256,"Peptidomimetic regulation of growth hormone secretion.","Smith RG, Van der Ploeg LH, Howard AD, Feighner SD, Cheng K, Hickey GJ, Wyvratt MJ Jr, Fisher MH, Nargund RP, Patchett AA","10.1210/edrv.18.5.0316",{"id":12295,"title":12296,"authors":12297,"journal":7668,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":12298},1257,"Characterization of growth hormone secretagogue small molecule ibutamoren (MK-0677) and its possible metabolites in thoroughbred horses for doping control.","Philip M, Karakka Kal AK, Subhahar MB, Karatt TK, Mathew B, Koshy SA","10.1002/rcm.9337",{"id":12300,"title":12301,"authors":12302,"journal":9365,"year":1122,"citationType":167,"doi":12303},1258,"MK-0677 (ibutamoren mesylate) for the treatment of patients recovering from hip fracture: a multicenter, randomized, placebo-controlled phase IIb study.","Adunsky A, Chandler J, Heyden N, Lutkiewicz J, Scott BB, Berd Y, Liu N, Papanicolaou DA","10.1016/j.archger.2010.10.004",{"id":12305,"title":12306,"authors":12307,"journal":7668,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":12308},1259,"Characterization of equine liver microsome-generated metabolites of growth hormone secretagogue small molecule ibutamoren.","Philip M, Karakka Kal AK, Subhahar MB, Perwad Z, Karatt TK","10.1002/rcm.9201",{"id":12310,"title":12311,"authors":12312,"journal":12313,"year":203,"citationType":167,"doi":12314},1260,"Effects of oral administration of ibutamoren mesylate, a nonpeptide growth hormone secretagogue, on the growth hormone-insulin-like growth factor I axis in growth hormone-deficient children.","Codner E, Cassorla F, Tiulpakov AN, Mericq MV, Avila A, Pescovitz OH, Svensson J, Cerchio K, Krupa D, Gertz BJ, Murphy G","Clinical pharmacology and therapeutics","10.1067/mcp.2001.116514",{"id":12316,"title":12317,"authors":12318,"journal":3452,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":12319},1261,"Equine metabolism of the growth hormone secretagogue MK-0677 in vitro and in urine and plasma following oral administration.","Cutler C, Viljanto M, Taylor P, Habershon-Butcher J, Van Eenoo P","10.1002/dta.3252",{"id":12321,"title":12322,"authors":12323,"journal":1048,"year":736,"citationType":167,"doi":12324},1262,"Growth hormone secretagogues as therapeutic agents.","Svensson J","10.1016/s1096-6374(99)80021-5",{"id":12326,"title":12327,"authors":12328,"journal":12329,"year":723,"citationType":167,"doi":12330},1263,"Hypothalamic targets for growth hormone secretagogues.","Robinson IC","Acta paediatrica (Oslo, Norway : 1992). Supplement","10.1111/j.1651-2227.1997.tb18382.x",{"id":12332,"title":12333,"authors":12334,"journal":10625,"year":736,"citationType":167,"doi":12335},1264,"Pharmacological characterisation of a new oral GH secretagogue, NN703.","Hansen BS, Raun K, Nielsen KK, Johansen PB, Hansen TK, Peschke B, Lau J, Andersen PH, Ankersen M","10.1530/eje.0.1410180",{"id":12337,"title":12338,"authors":12339,"journal":3142,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":12340},1265,"GHSR signalling in perinatal phases is involved in liver metabolism at puberty.","Ferreira-Junior MD, Cavalcante KVN, Xavier CH, Vanzela EC, Boschero AC, Matafome P, Gomes RM","10.1530/JOE-24-0039",{"id":12342,"title":10744,"authors":10745,"journal":10746,"year":2522,"citationType":167,"doi":10747},1266,{"id":12344,"title":10764,"authors":10765,"journal":10766,"year":836,"citationType":167},1267,{"id":12346,"title":12347,"authors":12348,"journal":12349,"year":723,"citationType":167},1268,"Growth hormone-releasing hormone and growth hormone-releasing peptide as therapeutic agents to enhance growth hormone secretion in disease and aging.","Thorner MO, Chapman IM, Gaylinn BD, Pezzoli SS, Hartman ML","Recent progress in hormone research",{"id":12351,"title":12352,"authors":12353,"journal":10914,"year":229,"citationType":167,"doi":12354},1269,"Electrophile-induced dearomatizing spirocyclization of N-arylisonicotinamides: a route to spirocyclic piperidines.","Arnott G, Brice H, Clayden J, Blaney E","10.1021/ol801092s",{"id":12356,"title":12357,"authors":12358,"journal":12359,"year":723,"citationType":167},1270,"Theodore R. Woodward Award. Age-related decline in growth hormone secretion: clinical significance and potential reversibility.","Thorner MO","Transactions of the American Clinical and Climatological Association",{"id":12361,"title":12362,"authors":12363,"journal":5625,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":12364},1271,"Brain and kidney GHS-R1a underexpression is associated with changes in renal function and hemodynamics during neurogenic hypertension.","Sales da Silva E, Ferreira PM, Castro CH, Pacheco LF, Graziani D, Pontes CNR, Bessa ASM, Fernandes E, Naves LM, Ribeiro LCDS, Mendonça MM, Gomes RM, Pedrino GR, Ferreira RN, Xavier CH","10.1016/j.mce.2020.110984",{"id":12366,"title":12367,"authors":12368,"journal":10124,"year":836,"citationType":167,"doi":12369},1272,"Development of analytical and preparative chromatographic separations of novel growth hormone secretagogue compounds.","Kennedy JH, Bowers JL, Dodge JA, Lugar CW, Shepherd TA, Sharp VS","10.1016/s0021-9673(99)01286-8",{"id":12371,"title":12372,"authors":12373,"journal":1071,"year":203,"citationType":167,"doi":12374},1273,"Role of endothelial cells in modulation of contractility induced by hexarelin in rat ventricle.","Bedendi I, Gallo MP, Malan D, Levi RC, Alloatti G","10.1016/s0024-3205(01)01312-1",{"id":12376,"title":11972,"authors":11973,"journal":3142,"year":836,"citationType":167,"doi":11974},1274,{"id":12378,"title":12379,"authors":12380,"journal":12381,"year":1384,"citationType":167,"doi":12382},1275,"Growth hormone secretagogues and growth hormone releasing peptides act as orthosteric super-agonists but not allosteric regulators for activation of the G protein Galpha(o1) by the Ghrelin receptor.","Bennett KA, Langmead CJ, Wise A, Milligan G","Molecular pharmacology","10.1124/mol.109.056101",{"id":12384,"title":12385,"authors":12386,"journal":12381,"year":1384,"citationType":167,"doi":12387},1276,"Overlapping binding site for the endogenous agonist, small-molecule agonists, and ago-allosteric modulators on the ghrelin receptor.","Holst B, Frimurer TM, Mokrosinski J, Halkjaer T, Cullberg KB, Underwood CR, Schwartz TW","10.1124/mol.108.049189",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":2541,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":12390},"2026-01-05T22:12:05.384897","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/mk-677.webp","528.67","C28H40N4O5S","178024","~24 hours","159634-47-6","CC(C)(C(=O)N[C@H](COCC1=CC=CC=C1)C(=O)N2CCC3(CC2)CN(C4=CC=CC=C34)S(=O)(=O)C)N",[12399,12403,12407,12410],{"name":12400,"dose":12401,"frequency":3989,"route":12402},"Body composition/Anti-aging","25mg","Oral (bedtime, empty stomach)",{"name":12404,"dose":12401,"frequency":12405,"route":12406},"Sleep quality improvement","1x nightly","Oral (30 min before bed)",{"name":6459,"dose":12408,"frequency":3989,"route":12409},"12.5mg","Oral (assess tolerance first)",{"name":12411,"dose":12401,"frequency":3989,"route":12412},"Research protocol","Oral (clinical study standard)",[12414,12415,12416,12417,12418,12419],"MK-677","Ibutamoren","MK-0677","Ibutamoren mesylate","Oral ghrelin mimetic","Growth hormone secretagogue",[12421,12422,12423,12424],"Growth hormone / IGF-1 axis","Sarcopenia and frailty in older adults","Hip-fracture recovery","Appetite regulation (ghrelin mimetic)",{"human":12426,"animal":12427,"inVitro":12428,"uncertain":12429},"In a 12-month randomized trial in healthy older adults (Nass et al., Ann Intern Med 2008), oral MK-677 increased fat-free mass and GH/IGF-1 levels but did not improve muscle strength or physical function and increased side effects (fatigue, insulin resistance, appetite). Earlier short-term studies confirmed dose-dependent GH/IGF-1 elevations (e.g., Murphy et al., JCEM 1998).","Rodent studies show MK-677 increases GH pulsatility, preserves lean mass during catabolic stress, and improves some lean/bone measures.","MK-677 is a potent, selective agonist of the ghrelin/growth-hormone secretagogue receptor (GHS-R1a) in receptor assays.","Use for muscle gain in healthy adults, bodybuilding, and anti-aging is off-label and not supported by functional-outcome trials; long-term effects on glucose metabolism and insulin sensitivity are documented concerns.",[12431,12435],{"finding":12432,"source":12433,"year":229,"link":12434,"evidenceLevel":46},"One year of MK-677 in healthy older adults increased fat-free mass and IGF-1 but did not improve muscle strength or physical function; side effects included increased appetite, fatigue, and insulin resistance.","Randomized placebo-controlled trial (Ann Intern Med)","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18981485/",{"finding":12436,"source":12437,"year":2522,"link":12091,"evidenceLevel":46},"MK-677, an orally active GH secretagogue, reversed diet-induced catabolism in a short-term clinical study, confirming dose-dependent GH/IGF-1 stimulation.","Short-term clinical study (J Clin Endocrinol Metab)","Despite decades of study, no phase 3 program succeeded and MK-677 is not approved. Trials used clinical doses (e.g., 25 mg/day) with meaningful side effects, and functional outcomes (strength, mobility) were not improved in the pivotal elderly study. Gray-market use is unregulated.","Orally bioavailable ghrelin mimetic that activates GHS-R1a, boosting GH pulsatility and IGF-1 with once-daily dosing; phase 2 trials used ~25 mg/day. Note: it is a small molecule, not a peptide.",[12441,12444,12447],{"question":12442,"answer":12443},"Is MK-677 FDA approved?","No. It completed clinical trials but was never approved and is sold as a research compound.",{"question":12445,"answer":12446},"Does MK-677 build muscle?","It increased lean mass in older adults in trials, but functional strength gains were not shown, and it is not approved for muscle gain.",{"question":12448,"answer":12449},"Does MK-677 affect blood sugar?","Trials reported increased fasting glucose and insulin resistance, a documented side effect worth monitoring.",{"id":2990,"name":12451,"slug":12452,"description":12453,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":28,"views":5139,"shortDescription":12454,"researchStatus":12455,"peptideBenefits":12456,"benefits":12480,"peptideSideEffects":12495,"sideEffects":12511,"dosage":9639,"mechanism":12521,"safetyNote":12522,"athleteWarning":10030,"chemicalMakeup":12523,"citations":12524,"research":12638,"statsCache":12639,"imageUrl":12641,"molecularWeight":12642,"molecularFormula":12643,"drugbankId":12644,"pubchemId":12645,"sequence":12646,"halfLife":12647,"administrationRoute":540,"casNumber":12648,"smiles":12649,"totalMentions":1221,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"protocols":12650,"aliases":12670,"researchAreas":12676,"evidence":12681,"keyStudies":12686,"limitations":12695,"pharmacology":12696,"faqs":12697,"lastReviewed":359},"Sermorelin","sermorelin","Sermorelin is a bioidentical synthetic peptide containing the first 29 amino acids of naturally occurring growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH 1-29), representing the shortest fully functional GHRH fragment. It stimulates the pituitary gland to produce and secrete growth hormone through its natural regulatory pathways, maintaining physiological feedback mechanisms. Unlike exogenous growth hormone, sermorelin preserves the pulsatile nature of GH release and allows the body's regulatory systems to prevent excessive hormone levels. Research indicates potential benefits for age-related GH decline, including improved body composition, sleep quality, immune function, and tissue repair. The peptide has been used clinically for GH deficiency diagnosis and pediatric growth disorders. Sermorelin requires subcutaneous injection, typically administered before bedtime to augment natural nocturnal GH secretion. It is often combined with growth hormone releasing peptides (GHRPs) for enhanced efficacy. CJC-1293 (Mod GRF 1-29) is a modified version with improved stability and longer duration of action.","GHRH analog stimulating natural growth hormone production","FDA approved",[12457,12459,12461,12463,12464,12465,12466,12468,12469,12471,12474,12477,12478,12479],{"id":1276,"benefit":12458,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Natural GH stimulation",{"id":3734,"benefit":12460,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Improved sleep",{"id":3738,"benefit":12462,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Recovery 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rate","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8772599/",{"id":8130,"benefit":12475,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":12476,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},"Immune Enhancement: 107% GH increase, 30% B-cell increase in elderly","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9360512/",{"id":11512,"benefit":12467,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},{"id":11517,"benefit":11800,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},{"id":11523,"benefit":12470,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},[12481,12482,12483,12484,12485,12486,12487,12488,12489,12490,12491,12492,12493,12494],{"id":1276,"benefit":12458,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3734,"benefit":12460,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3738,"benefit":12462,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":1279,"benefit":34,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3736,"benefit":10222,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3740,"benefit":12455,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":719,"benefit":12467,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},{"id":725,"benefit":11800,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},{"id":732,"benefit":12470,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},{"id":8126,"benefit":12472,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":12473,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":8130,"benefit":12475,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":12476,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":11512,"benefit":12467,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},{"id":11517,"benefit":11800,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},{"id":11523,"benefit":12470,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},[12496,12498,12499,12502,12505,12506,12507,12508,12509],{"id":10723,"sideEffect":7807,"description":12497,"severity":100,"frequency":23,"source":600,"sourceType":600,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":23,"userReportsCount":23,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Avoid: 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urticaria","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9924487/",{"id":7490,"sideEffect":1900,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":10460,"sideEffect":112,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":10455,"sideEffect":1269,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":7841,"sideEffect":2340,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":262,"sideEffect":398,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":7820,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":12451,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":6643,"management":12510,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},"Monitor lipids; self-resolving",[12512,12513,12514,12515,12516,12517,12518,12519,12520],{"id":10723,"sideEffect":7807,"description":12497,"severity":100,"frequency":23,"source":600,"sourceType":600,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":23,"userReportsCount":23,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":602,"sideEffect":7807,"description":12497,"severity":100,"frequency":23,"source":600,"sourceType":600,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":23,"userReportsCount":23,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":62,"sideEffect":12500,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":23,"source":44,"sourceType":44,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":12501,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":65,"sideEffect":12503,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":23,"source":44,"sourceType":44,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":12504,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":7490,"sideEffect":1900,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":10460,"sideEffect":112,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":10455,"sideEffect":1269,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":7841,"sideEffect":2340,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":262,"sideEffect":398,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":7820,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":12451,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":6643,"management":12510,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},"GHRH analogue for pulsatile GH release","FDA approved for growth hormone deficiency. Well-established safety profile.","29-amino acid synthetic GHRH analog",[12525,12529,12533,12539,12545,12551,12556,12558,12560,12562,12567,12572,12574,12580,12586,12588,12593,12595,12597,12602,12604,12610,12612,12617,12623,12628,12633],{"id":2537,"title":12526,"authors":155,"journal":7022,"year":157,"citationType":1024,"doi":12527,"researchPaperId":12528},"Sermorelin Therapy in Adult GH Deficiency","10.1007/s12020-025-04155-9","pubmed_41075421",{"id":6865,"title":12530,"authors":155,"journal":3059,"year":458,"citationType":158,"doi":12531,"researchPaperId":12532},"Sermorelin: Past, Present, and Future Applications","10.1016/j.peptides.2024.171288","pubmed_40244089",{"id":12534,"title":12535,"authors":12536,"journal":12537,"year":3074,"citationType":167,"doi":12538},1679,"Sermorelin: a better approach to management of adult-onset growth hormone insufficiency?","Walker RF","Clinical interventions in aging","10.2147/ciia.2006.1.4.307",{"id":12540,"title":12541,"authors":12542,"journal":12543,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":12544},1680,"A potentially effective drug for patients with recurrent glioma: sermorelin.","Chang Y, Huang R, Zhai Y, Huang L, Feng Y, Wang D, Chai R, Zhang W, Hu H","Annals of translational medicine","10.21037/atm-20-6561",{"id":12546,"title":12547,"authors":12548,"journal":12549,"year":736,"citationType":167,"doi":12550},1681,"Sermorelin: a review of its use in the diagnosis and treatment of children with idiopathic growth hormone deficiency.","Prakash A, Goa KL","BioDrugs : clinical immunotherapeutics, biopharmaceuticals and gene therapy","10.2165/00063030-199912020-00007",{"id":12552,"title":12553,"authors":12554,"journal":4214,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":12555},1682,"In-house standards derived from doping peptides: Enzymatic and serum stability and degradation profile of GHRP and GHRH-related peptides.","González-López NM, Guerra-Acero-Turizo LM, Blanco-Medina I, Barragán-Cárdenas AC, Ramírez-Celis DA, Martínez-Ramírez JA, Fierro-Medina R, García-Castañeda JE, Rivera-Monroy ZJ","10.1002/bmc.5741",{"id":12557,"title":10089,"authors":10090,"journal":10091,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":10092},1683,{"id":12559,"title":10676,"authors":10677,"journal":10678,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":10679},1684,{"id":12561,"title":10080,"authors":10081,"journal":3452,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":10082},1685,{"id":12563,"title":12564,"authors":12565,"journal":3883,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":12566},1686,"Online large volume sample staking preconcentration and separation of enantiomeric GHRH analogs by capillary electrophoresis.","Otin J, Tran NT, Benoit A, Buisson C, Taverna M","10.1002/elps.202200278",{"id":12568,"title":12569,"authors":12570,"journal":3189,"year":723,"citationType":167,"doi":12571},1687,"When the light turns blue.","Barkan A","10.1210/endo.138.11.5646",{"id":12573,"title":10098,"authors":10099,"journal":6419,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":10100},1688,{"id":12575,"title":12576,"authors":12577,"journal":12578,"year":173,"citationType":167,"doi":12579},1689,"PEGylation of growth hormone-releasing hormone (GRF) analogues.","Esposito P, Barbero L, Caccia P, Caliceti P, D'Antonio M, Piquet G, Veronese FM","Advanced drug delivery reviews","10.1016/s0169-409x(03)00109-1",{"id":12581,"title":12582,"authors":12583,"journal":12584,"year":1360,"citationType":167,"doi":12585},1690,"Growth hormone releasing hormone.","Grossman A, Savage MO, Besser GM","Clinics in endocrinology and metabolism","10.1016/s0300-595x(86)80012-3",{"id":12587,"title":10117,"authors":10118,"journal":10119,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":10120},1691,{"id":12589,"title":12590,"authors":12591,"journal":516,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":12592},1692,"Growth Hormone-Releasing Hormone Antagonists Increase Radiosensitivity in Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer Cells.","Gesmundo I, Pedrolli F, Giglioli FR, Jazaj F, Granato G, Bertoldo A, Bistolfi F, Gregorc V, Sapino A, Righi L, Cai R, Sha W, Wangpaichitr M, Papotti M, Ghigo E, Ricardi U, Schally AV, Granata R","10.3390/ijms26073267",{"id":12594,"title":10106,"authors":10107,"journal":10108,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":10109},1693,{"id":12596,"title":10094,"authors":10095,"journal":7607,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":10096},1694,{"id":12598,"title":12599,"authors":12600,"journal":2064,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":12601},1695,"A glimpse at growth hormone-releasing hormone cosmos.","Barabutis N","10.1111/1440-1681.13324",{"id":12603,"title":10102,"authors":10103,"journal":3452,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":10104},1696,{"id":12605,"title":12606,"authors":12607,"journal":12608,"year":1196,"citationType":167,"doi":12609},1697,"New agonist- and antagonist-based treatment approaches for advanced prostate cancer.","Xu Y, Jiang YF, Wu B","The Journal of international medical research","10.1177/147323001204000401",{"id":12611,"title":10136,"authors":10137,"journal":6419,"year":1624,"citationType":167,"doi":10138},1698,{"id":12613,"title":12614,"authors":12615,"journal":3452,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":12616},1699,"Operation resistance: A snapshot of falsified antibiotics and biopharmaceutical injectables in Europe.","Venhuis BJ, Keizers PH, Klausmann R, Hegger I","10.1002/dta.1888",{"id":12618,"title":12619,"authors":12620,"journal":12621,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":12622},1700,"Growth Hormone Secretagogue Treatment in Hypogonadal Men Raises Serum Insulin-Like Growth Factor-1 Levels.","Sigalos JT, Pastuszak AW, Allison A, Ohlander SJ, Herati A, Lindgren MC, Lipshultz LI","American journal of men's health","10.1177/1557988317718662",{"id":12624,"title":12625,"authors":12626,"journal":1419,"year":849,"citationType":167,"doi":12627},1701,"Perinatal growth hormone (GH) physiology: effect of GH-releasing factor on maternal and fetal secretion of pituitary and placental GH.","de Zegher F, Vanderschueren-Lodeweyckx M, Spitz B, Faijerson Y, Blomberg F, Beckers A, Hennen G, Frankenne F","10.1210/jcem-71-2-520",{"id":12629,"title":12630,"authors":12631,"journal":11682,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":12632},1702,"A novel approach for the treatment of AML, through GHRH antagonism: MIA-602.","Costoya J, Gaumond SI, Chale RS, Schally AV, Jimenez JJ","10.1007/s11154-024-09917-6",{"id":12634,"title":12635,"authors":12636,"journal":1481,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":12637},1703,"Exquisite sensitivity of adrenocortical carcinomas to induction of ferroptosis.","Belavgeni A, Bornstein SR, von Mässenhausen A, Tonnus W, Stumpf J, Meyer C, Othmar E, Latk M, Kanczkowski W, Kroiss M, Hantel C, Hugo C, Fassnacht M, Ziegler CG, Schally AV, Krone NP, Linkermann A","10.1073/pnas.1912700116",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":1221,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":12640},"2026-01-05T22:12:08.478270","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/sermorelin.webp","3357.88","C149H246N44O42S","DB00052","16133753","MAADSQTPWLLTFSLLCLLWPQEAGAFPAMPLSSLFANAVLRAQHLHQLAADTYKEFERAYIPEGQRYSIQNAQAAFCFSETIPAPTGKEEAQQRTDMELLRFSLLLIQSWLGPVQFLSRIFTNSLMFGTSDRVYEKLKDLEEGIQALMQELEDGSPRIGQILKQTYDKFDANMRSDDALLKNYGLLSCFKKDLHKAETYLRVMKCRRFAESSCAF","10-20 minutes","86168-78-7","CC[C@H](C)[C@@H](C(=O)N[C@@H](CC1=CC=CC=C1)C(=O)N[C@@H]([C@@H](C)O)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(=O)N)C(=O)N[C@@H](CO)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC2=CC=C(C=C2)O)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCNC(=N)N)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCCN)C(=O)N[C@@H](C(C)C)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(C)C)C(=O)NCC(=O)N[C@@H](CCC(=O)N)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(C)C)C(=O)N[C@@H](CO)C(=O)N[C@@H](C)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCNC(=N)N)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCCN)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(C)C)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(C)C)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCC(=O)N)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(=O)O)C(=O)N[C@@H]([C@@H](C)CC)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCSC)C(=O)N[C@@H](CO)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCNC(=N)N)C(=O)N)NC(=O)[C@H](C)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@H](C)NC(=O)[C@H](CC3=CC=C(C=C3)O)N",[12651,12654,12656,12659,12663,12666],{"name":12652,"dose":12653,"frequency":10168,"route":5382},"Anti-aging/Longevity","200-300 mcg daily",{"name":1588,"dose":12655,"frequency":10168,"route":5382},"300-500 mcg daily",{"name":12657,"dose":12658,"frequency":10168,"route":5382},"Pediatric GH Deficiency","30 mcg/kg daily",{"name":12660,"dose":12661,"frequency":5386,"route":12662},"Diagnostic Testing","1 mcg/kg IV","Intravenous bolus",{"name":10160,"dose":12664,"frequency":12665,"route":5382},"200 mcg daily","5 days weekly",{"name":12667,"dose":12668,"frequency":1801,"route":12669},"Combination Therapy","200 mcg + GHRP","Subcutaneous co-injection",[12671,12672,12673,12674,12675],"Sermorelin acetate","GHRH(1-29)","GRF 1-29","GRF(1-29)-NH2","Geref",[12677,12678,12679,12680],"Pediatric growth hormone deficiency","GH stimulation testing","Age-related GH decline (investigational)","GHRH pharmacology",{"human":12682,"animal":12683,"inVitro":12684,"uncertain":12685},"Sermorelin (GHRH 1-29) was FDA approved in 1997 (Geref) for pediatric growth hormone deficiency; clinical studies show it stimulates GH release in healthy subjects and in GH-deficient patients. Adult 'anti-aging' and body-composition uses are off-label and lack large outcome trials.","Rodent studies of GHRH analogs support pituitary GH-releasing activity and dose-dependent GH responses.","Pituitary cell assays characterize GHRH(1-29) as a full agonist at the GHRH receptor, stimulating GH synthesis and release.","Claims of improved sleep, energy, muscle mass, and 'longevity' from off-label adult use are not supported by large randomized trials in healthy or aging adults.",[12687,12691],{"finding":12688,"source":12689,"year":1396,"link":12690,"evidenceLevel":46},"Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic study in healthy subjects showed GHRH(1-29)-NH2 stimulates GH secretion after intravenous and intranasal administration, with a short duration of action.","Clinical pharmacology study (Acta Paediatrica Supplement)","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8329825/",{"finding":12692,"source":12693,"year":723,"link":12694,"evidenceLevel":46},"The FDA approved sermorelin (Geref) in 1997 for pediatric growth hormone deficiency, based on its ability to stimulate endogenous GH secretion.","FDA approval / orphan drug designation","https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/opdlisting/oopd/detailedIndex.cfm?cfgridkey=24687","Approved only for pediatric GHD; the marketed product's availability has changed over time. Adult off-label 'anti-aging' use has limited high-quality evidence, GH responses vary widely between individuals, and long-term safety for this use is unestablished.","Sermorelin is the 29-amino-acid N-terminal fragment of GHRH (GHRH 1-29), administered by subcutaneous injection; it stimulates pituitary GH secretion in a pulsatile manner. It is short-acting, which is why repeated or nightly dosing is used in research/off-label protocols.",[12698,12701,12704],{"question":12699,"answer":12700},"Is sermorelin FDA approved?","Yes, as Geref (sermorelin acetate) for pediatric growth hormone deficiency (approved 1997); it is not approved for adult anti-aging use.",{"question":12702,"answer":12703},"How is sermorelin given?","By subcutaneous injection, typically daily at bedtime in off-label adult protocols to augment nocturnal GH secretion.",{"question":12705,"answer":12706},"Does sermorelin build muscle or reverse aging?","No large randomized trials support these adult off-label claims; evidence for body-composition or aging benefits is limited.",{"id":1788,"name":5056,"slug":12708,"description":12709,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":28,"views":3772,"shortDescription":12710,"researchStatus":9524,"peptideBenefits":12711,"benefits":12749,"peptideSideEffects":12766,"sideEffects":12794,"dosage":12805,"mechanism":12806,"safetyNote":12807,"athleteWarning":12808,"chemicalMakeup":12809,"citations":12810,"research":12999,"statsCache":13000,"imageUrl":13002,"molecularWeight":13003,"molecularFormula":13004,"pubchemId":13005,"sequence":13006,"halfLife":2228,"administrationRoute":540,"casNumber":5377,"smiles":13007,"totalMentions":9484,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"protocols":13008,"aliases":13026,"researchAreas":13031,"evidence":13035,"keyStudies":13040,"limitations":13052,"pharmacology":13053,"faqs":13054,"lastReviewed":359},"tb-500","TB-500 is a synthetic version of Thymosin Beta-4 (Tβ4), one of the most abundant peptides in your body. It's found in nearly every cell and plays a crucial role in how your body heals itself. **What does it do?** TB-500 works by regulating actin, a protein essential for cell movement and structure. When tissue is damaged, TB-500 helps cells migrate to the injury site and promotes the formation of new blood vessels — essentially fast-tracking your body's natural repair process. **What the research shows:** • Promotes healing across multiple tissue types: skin, muscle, tendons, ligaments, heart, and eyes • Reduces inflammation and scar tissue formation • Supports new blood vessel growth (angiogenesis) • May protect heart tissue and improve cardiac function after injury • Widely used in veterinary medicine for racehorses **Common uses:** Athletes and researchers explore TB-500 for injury recovery, particularly for stubborn tendon and ligament issues that heal slowly on their own. **Important to know:** TB-500 is banned by WADA in competitive sports. While animal and veterinary research is extensive, controlled human clinical trials remain limited. --- **Sources:** Goldstein AL, et al. (2022) Current Protein & Peptide Science. DOI:10.2174/1389203724666221201093500 | Xing Y, et al. (2021) Chinese Journal of Burns. DOI:10.3760/cma.j.cn501120-20210221-00059","Synthetic thymosin beta-4 for tissue repair and inflammation reduction",[12712,12714,12715,12717,12719,12721,12723,12725,12726,12728,12732,12736,12740,12742,12744,12746],{"id":4337,"benefit":12713,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Accelerated recovery",{"id":9484,"benefit":9952,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":6362,"benefit":12716,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Injury healing",{"id":1839,"benefit":12718,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Muscle 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anti-apoptotic","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30063853/",{"id":12733,"benefit":12734,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":12735,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},463,"Cutaneous Wound Healing: Stimulates lymphocyte proliferation","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17923415/",{"id":12737,"benefit":12738,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":12739,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},464,"Cardiac Repair: Cell survival and angiogenesis promotion","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17468232/",{"id":507,"benefit":12741,"benefitCategory":3683,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},"Accelerated re-epithelialization",{"id":513,"benefit":12743,"benefitCategory":3690,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},"Reduced PMN infiltration and inflammatory cytokines",{"id":519,"benefit":12745,"benefitCategory":11164,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},"Cardiac protection 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mg 2-3x/week","Thymosin Beta-4 fragment that enhances cell migration","Limited human safety data. Research compound only - not approved for therapeutic use.","WADA BANNED - Prohibited in competitive sports as healing and regeneration peptide","Synthetic fragment of thymosin β-4 (43 amino acids)",[12811,12812,12813,12814,12820,12825,12830,12835,12837,12842,12848,12850,12852,12854,12859,12865,12871,12877,12883,12888,12893,12898,12903,12909,12915,12921,12927,12933,12939,12945,12951,12956,12961,12966,12972,12978,12984,12989,12994],{"id":8063,"title":5135,"authors":155,"journal":2649,"year":458,"citationType":158,"doi":5136,"researchPaperId":5137},{"id":6627,"title":5140,"authors":155,"journal":2642,"year":458,"citationType":430,"doi":5141,"researchPaperId":5142},{"id":1636,"title":5145,"authors":155,"journal":156,"year":458,"citationType":158,"doi":5146,"researchPaperId":5147},{"id":12815,"title":12816,"authors":12817,"journal":12818,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":12819},1838,"Simultaneous quantification of TB-500 and its metabolites in in-vitro experiments and rats by UHPLC-Q-Exactive orbitrap MS/MS and their screening by wound healing activities in-vitro.","Rahaman KA, Muresan AR, Min H, Son J, Han HS, Kang MJ, Kwon OS","Journal of chromatography. B, Analytical technologies in the biomedical and life sciences","10.1016/j.jchromb.2024.124033",{"id":12821,"title":12822,"authors":12823,"journal":10124,"year":1196,"citationType":167,"doi":12824},1839,"Doping control analysis of TB-500, a synthetic version of an active region of thymosin β₄, in equine urine and plasma by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry.","Ho EN, Kwok WH, Lau MY, Wong AS, Wan TS, Lam KK, Schiff PJ, Stewart BD","10.1016/j.chroma.2012.09.043",{"id":12826,"title":12827,"authors":12828,"journal":10091,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":12829},1840,"Adsorption effects of the doping relevant peptides Insulin Lispro, Synachten, TB-500 and GHRP 5.","Judák P, Van Eenoo P, Deventer K","10.1016/j.ab.2017.09.003",{"id":12831,"title":12832,"authors":12833,"journal":3452,"year":1196,"citationType":167,"doi":12834},1841,"Synthesis and characterization of the N-terminal acetylated 17-23 fragment of thymosin beta 4 identified in TB-500, a product suspected to possess doping potential.","Esposito S, Deventer K, Goeman J, Van der Eycken J, Van Eenoo P","10.1002/dta.1402",{"id":12836,"title":6417,"authors":6418,"journal":6419,"year":1152,"citationType":167,"doi":6420},1842,{"id":12838,"title":12839,"authors":12840,"journal":1006,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":12841},1843,"Comparative effects of dietary sodium butyrate and tributyrin on broiler chickens' performance, gene expression, intestinal histomorphometry, blood indices, and litter.","Ismael E, Kamel S, Elleithy EMM, Bekeer MR, Fahmy KNE","10.1038/s41598-025-09278-3",{"id":12843,"title":12844,"authors":12845,"journal":12846,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":12847},1844,"In vitro models for metabolic studies of small peptide hormones in sport drug testing.","Esposito S, Deventer K, Geldof L, Van Eenoo P","Journal of peptide science : an official publication of the European Peptide Society","10.1002/psc.2710",{"id":12849,"title":10140,"authors":10141,"journal":7607,"year":260,"citationType":167,"doi":10142},1845,{"id":12851,"title":3461,"authors":3462,"journal":3463,"year":1152,"citationType":167,"doi":3464},1846,{"id":12853,"title":6434,"authors":6435,"journal":6436,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":6437},1847,{"id":12855,"title":12856,"authors":12857,"journal":3452,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":12858},1848,"Solid-phase extraction of small biologically active peptides on cartridges and microelution 96-well plates from human urine.","Semenistaya E, Zvereva I, Krotov G, Rodchenkov G","10.1002/dta.1890",{"id":12860,"title":12861,"authors":12862,"journal":12863,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":12864},1849,"Comparison of various in vitro model systems of the metabolism of synthetic doping peptides: Proteolytic enzymes, human blood serum, liver and kidney microsomes and liver S9 fraction.","Zvereva I, Semenistaya E, Krotov G, Rodchenkov G","Journal of proteomics","10.1016/j.jprot.2016.08.016",{"id":12866,"title":12867,"authors":12868,"journal":12869,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":12870},1850,"Drug resistant TB - latest developments in epidemiology, diagnostics and management.","Tiberi S, Utjesanovic N, Galvin J, Centis R, D'Ambrosio L, van den Boom M, Zumla A, Migliori GB","International journal of infectious diseases : IJID : official publication of the International Society for Infectious Diseases","10.1016/j.ijid.2022.03.026",{"id":12872,"title":12873,"authors":12874,"journal":12875,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":12876},1851,"Bedaquiline: Current status and future perspectives.","Khoshnood S, Goudarzi M, Taki E, Darbandi A, Kouhsari E, Heidary M, Motahar M, Moradi M, Bazyar H","Journal of global antimicrobial resistance","10.1016/j.jgar.2021.02.017",{"id":12878,"title":12879,"authors":12880,"journal":12881,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":12882},1852,"Culture-negative TB: clinical characteristics, risk factors and treatment outcomes.","Okoya F, Huang CC, Zhang Z, Lecca L, Calderón R, Contreras C, Yataco R, Galea J, Becerra M, Murray M","The international journal of tuberculosis and lung disease : the official journal of the International Union against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease","10.5588/ijtld.22.0554",{"id":12884,"title":12885,"authors":12886,"journal":12881,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":12887},1853,"Finding gaps in routine TB surveillance activities in Bangladesh.","Allorant A, Biswas S, Ahmed S, Wiens KE, LeGrand KE, Janko MM, Henry NJ, Dangel WJ, Watson A, Blacker BF, Kyu HH, Ross JM, Rahman MS, Hay SI, Reiner RC","10.5588/ijtld.21.0624",{"id":12889,"title":12890,"authors":12891,"journal":12892,"year":729,"citationType":167},1854,"TB and AIDS.","Sehgal PN","Health for the millions",{"id":12894,"title":12895,"authors":12896,"journal":1754,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":12897},1855,"Enhanced Circularly Polarized Green Luminescence Metrics from New Enantiopure Binary Tris-Pyrazolonate-Tb(3+) Complexes.","Liu J, Zhang Y, Yao R, Ren H, Wang W, Feng H, Li W, Miao Z","10.3390/molecules29245887",{"id":12899,"title":12900,"authors":12901,"journal":11336,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":12902},1856,"Inflammation and tuberculosis: host-directed therapies.","Zumla A, Rao M, Parida SK, Keshavjee S, Cassell G, Wallis R, Axelsson-Robertsson R, Doherty M, Andersson J, Maeurer M","10.1111/joim.12256",{"id":12904,"title":12905,"authors":12906,"journal":12907,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":12908},1857,"Electron Spin Relaxation of Tb(3+) and Tm(3+) Ions.","McPeak J, Alexander D, Joseph C, Eaton SS, Eaton GR","Applied magnetic resonance","10.1007/s00723-020-01262-6",{"id":12910,"title":12911,"authors":12912,"journal":12913,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":12914},1858,"Lattice Deformation of Tb(0.29)Dy(0.71)Fe(1.95) Alloy during Magnetization.","Gong J, Li J, Bao X, Gao X","Micromachines","10.3390/mi14101861",{"id":12916,"title":12917,"authors":12918,"journal":12919,"year":1105,"citationType":167,"doi":12920},1859,"Management of individuals requiring antiretroviral therapy and TB treatment.","Cohen K, Meintjes G","Current opinion in HIV and AIDS","10.1097/COH.0b013e3283339309",{"id":12922,"title":12923,"authors":12924,"journal":12925,"year":229,"citationType":167,"doi":12926},1860,"[Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis].","Alcaide F, Santín M","Enfermedades infecciosas y microbiologia clinica","10.1157/13128781",{"id":12928,"title":12929,"authors":12930,"journal":12931,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":12932},1861,"Effects of underweight and overweight on mortality in patients with pulmonary tuberculosis.","Min J, Kim JS, Kim HW, Ko Y, Oh JY, Jeong YJ, Lee EH, Yang B, Lee KM, Ahn JH, Kim JW, Hwang YI, Lee SS, Park JS, Koo HK","Frontiers in public health","10.3389/fpubh.2023.1236099",{"id":12934,"title":12935,"authors":12936,"journal":12937,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":12938},1862,"Childhood tuberculosis in Qatar.","Singh JP, Mohammed R, Thayyullathil T, Al-Khal A, Al-Suwaidi Z","International journal of mycobacteriology","10.1016/j.ijmyco.2016.10.030",{"id":12940,"title":12941,"authors":12942,"journal":12943,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":12944},1863,"Factors affecting ability of TB patients to follow treatment guidelines - applying a capability approach.","Chandru BA, Varma RP","International journal for equity in health","10.1186/s12939-023-01991-7",{"id":12946,"title":12947,"authors":12948,"journal":12949,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":12950},1864,"Active Tuberculosis Case Finding in Haiti.","Masur J, Koenig SP, Julma P, Ocheretina O, Durán-Mendicuti MA, Fitzgerald DW, Pape JW","The American journal of tropical medicine and hygiene","10.4269/ajtmh.16-0674",{"id":12952,"title":12953,"authors":12954,"journal":1990,"year":1105,"citationType":167,"doi":12955},1865,"Heightened vulnerability to MDR-TB epidemics after controlling drug-susceptible TB.","Bishai JD, Bishai WR, Bishai DM","10.1371/journal.pone.0012843",{"id":12957,"title":12958,"authors":12959,"journal":5715,"year":203,"citationType":167,"doi":12960},1866,"Impact of tuberculosis (TB) on HIV-1 activity in dually infected patients.","Toossi Z, Mayanja-Kizza H, Hirsch CS, Edmonds KL, Spahlinger T, Hom DL, Aung H, Mugyenyi P, Ellner JJ, Whalen CW","10.1046/j.1365-2249.2001.01401.x",{"id":12962,"title":12963,"authors":12964,"journal":12881,"year":1152,"citationType":167,"doi":12965},1867,"Review of policy and status of implementation of collaborative HIV-TB activities in 23 high-burden countries.","Gupta S, Granich R, Date A, Lepere P, Hersh B, Gouws E, Samb B","10.5588/ijtld.13.0889",{"id":12967,"title":12968,"authors":12969,"journal":12970,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":12971},1868,"Surreptitious TB Infections with Recently Identified DM People: A Cross- Sectional Study.","Sireesha T, Asha S, Malathi J","Infectious disorders drug targets","10.2174/1871526518666181011152914",{"id":12973,"title":12974,"authors":12975,"journal":12976,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":12977},1869,"Erythema nodosum and the risk of tuberculosis in a high incidence setting.","Bjorn-Mortensen K, Ladefoged K, Simonsen J, Michelsen SW, Sørensen HC, Koch A, Lillebaek T, Andersen AB, Soborg B","International journal of circumpolar health","10.3402/ijch.v75.32666",{"id":12979,"title":12980,"authors":12981,"journal":12982,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":12983},1870,"Tuberculosis in pregnant women and neonates: A meta-review of current evidence.","K J S, A B, G K H, S M G","Paediatric respiratory reviews","10.1016/j.prrv.2020.02.001",{"id":12985,"title":12986,"authors":12987,"journal":3452,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":12988},1871,"TB500/TB1000 and SGF1000: A scientific approach for a better understanding of misbranded and adulterated drugs.","Delcourt V, Garcia P, Chabot B, Barnabé A, Bouscarel M, Loup B, Popot MA, Bailly-Chouriberry L","10.1002/dta.3421",{"id":12990,"title":12991,"authors":12992,"journal":816,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":12993},1872,"Alkaline Phosphatase-Triggered Spatiotemporal Repair of Corneal Injury with TB500 Peptide Hydrogel.","Lu P, Shan M, Peng C, Ji W, Yang T, Yang Z, Zhang Z, Wang Y","10.1021/acsami.5c14652",{"id":12995,"title":12996,"authors":12997,"journal":10124,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":12998},1873,"Multi-analyte screening of small peptides by alkaline pre-activated solid phase extraction coupled with liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry in doping controls.","Jing J, Tian T, Wang Y, Xu X, Shan Y","10.1016/j.chroma.2022.463272",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":9484,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":13001},"2026-01-05T22:12:10.213233","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/tb-500.webp","4963.00","C38H68N10O14","62707662","LKKTETQ","C[C@H]([C@@H](C(=O)N[C@@H](CCC(=O)O)C(=O)N[C@@H]([C@@H](C)O)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCC(=O)N)C(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@H](CCCCN)NC(=O)[C@H](CCCCN)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(C)C)NC(=O)C)O",[13009,13012,13016,13018,13021,13023],{"name":13010,"dose":13011,"frequency":1589,"route":1595},"General tissue repair","2-3mg",{"name":13013,"dose":13014,"frequency":889,"route":13015},"Serious injury recovery","4-5mg","SubQ near injury site",{"name":13017,"dose":13011,"frequency":1589,"route":555},"Athletic enhancement",{"name":13019,"dose":13020,"frequency":881,"route":1595},"Chronic conditions","3-4mg",{"name":892,"dose":13022,"frequency":876,"route":555},"2mg",{"name":13024,"dose":13025,"frequency":889,"route":555},"Post-surgical recovery","3-5mg",[13027,5056,13028,13029,13030],"TB500","thymosin beta-4 (as marketed)","Tbeta4 fragment","TB-4",[3014,13032,13033,13034],"Musculoskeletal repair (tendon/ligament)","Cardiac repair","Ophthalmic applications (dry eye)",{"human":13036,"animal":13037,"inVitro":13038,"uncertain":13039},"No clinical trials of TB-500 as sold were found. The full-length protein thymosin beta-4 has clinical data: a phase 2 RCT of ophthalmic Tbeta4 (RGN-259) improved signs and symptoms of dry eye, and a phase 2 trial of injectable Tbeta4 (RGN-352) in acute ST-elevation myocardial infarction was initiated (and briefly placed on clinical hold). Neither is FDA-approved.","Rodent studies report TB-500/thymosin beta-4 accelerates Achilles tendon healing (including a 2026 histopathological and biomechanical study with BPC-157), improves dermal wound closure, and supports cardiac repair after infarction.","Cell studies show the actin-binding motif (LKKTETQ) of thymosin beta-4 promotes cell migration, a mechanism proposed to underlie its pro-healing effects.","Claims that the TB-500 fragment specifically (versus full-length Tbeta4) heals injuries, prevents muscle damage, or provides anti-inflammatory benefit in humans are not supported by published trials.",[13041,13045,13048],{"finding":13042,"source":13043,"year":1516,"link":13044,"evidenceLevel":46},"Thymosin beta-4 ophthalmic solution significantly improved signs and symptoms of dry eye in a randomized, placebo-controlled phase 2 trial using the controlled adverse environment model.","Phase 2 randomized, placebo-controlled trial","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26056426/",{"finding":13046,"source":13047,"year":1122,"link":5073,"evidenceLevel":46},"A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 2 study (NCT01311518) evaluated injectable thymosin beta-4 (RGN-352) in patients with acute ST-elevation myocardial infarction.","Phase 2 trial (ClinicalTrials.gov)",{"finding":13049,"source":13050,"year":1624,"link":13051,"evidenceLevel":50},"BPC-157 and TB-500 improved Achilles tendon healing in rats, assessed histopathologically and biomechanically.","preclinical study","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42542926/","TB-500 sold as a research peptide is typically a thymosin beta-4 fragment without published pharmacokinetic, dosing, or safety data; clinical evidence comes from the full-length protein. A 2026 scoping review highlights heterogeneous study quality and the need for standardized trials. No regulatory approval exists for human use.","Administered by subcutaneous or intramuscular injection in research protocols. Full-length thymosin beta-4 has a short plasma half-life; the TB-500 fragment's pharmacokinetics are not characterized in published trials. Mechanism: actin-binding (LKKTETQ motif) promotes cell migration and tissue repair.",[13055,13058,13061],{"question":13056,"answer":13057},"Is TB-500 the same as thymosin beta-4?","TB-500 as sold is typically a synthetic fragment of the 43-amino-acid thymosin beta-4 protein, whereas clinical trials have used the full-length protein. They are related but not identical products.",{"question":13059,"answer":13060},"Has TB-500 been studied in humans?","No clinical trials of the TB-500 fragment were found. Clinical data exist for full-length thymosin beta-4 (e.g., dry-eye and cardiac trials), neither of which is FDA-approved.",{"question":13062,"answer":13063},"Is TB-500 approved for healing?","No. It is not approved by any regulator for wound healing or musculoskeletal use; it is marketed as a research compound.",{"id":6865,"name":13065,"slug":13066,"description":13067,"fdaApproved":28,"wadaBanned":28,"views":8063,"shortDescription":13068,"researchStatus":12455,"peptideBenefits":13069,"benefits":13092,"peptideSideEffects":13103,"sideEffects":13134,"dosage":13149,"mechanism":13150,"safetyNote":13151,"athleteWarning":10030,"chemicalMakeup":13152,"citations":13153,"research":13267,"statsCache":13268,"imageUrl":13270,"molecularWeight":13271,"molecularFormula":13272,"drugbankId":13273,"pubchemId":13274,"sequence":12646,"halfLife":13275,"administrationRoute":540,"casNumber":13276,"smiles":13277,"totalMentions":1928,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"protocols":13278,"aliases":13301,"researchAreas":13306,"evidence":13311,"keyStudies":13316,"limitations":13328,"pharmacology":13329,"faqs":13330,"lastReviewed":359},"Tesamorelin","tesamorelin","Tesamorelin is a synthetic growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) analog consisting of 44 amino acids, FDA-approved under the brand name Egrifta for reducing excess abdominal visceral adipose tissue in HIV-infected patients with lipodystrophy. The peptide works by stimulating the pituitary gland to produce and secrete endogenous growth hormone in physiological pulsatile patterns. Clinical trials demonstrate significant reduction in visceral adipose tissue (VAT) while preserving subcutaneous fat and lean body mass. Research indicates improvements in trunk fat, waist circumference, and metabolic parameters including triglycerides and cholesterol. Unlike exogenous growth hormone administration, tesamorelin maintains feedback regulation and produces more natural GH secretion patterns. The peptide requires daily subcutaneous injection. Beyond its approved indication, tesamorelin is researched for age-related body composition changes, cognitive function in aging, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. It is generally well-tolerated with injection site reactions being the most common adverse effect.","GHRH analog FDA-approved for HIV-associated lipodystrophy",[13070,13074,13075,13077,13078,13080,13083,13086,13088,13090],{"id":111,"benefit":13071,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":13072,"sourceUrl":13073,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Visceral fat reduction","1pa1plh","https://reddit.com/r/Peptides/comments/1pa1plh/how_am_i_supposed_to_feel_when_on_tesamorelin_any/",{"id":1268,"benefit":6268,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":13072,"sourceUrl":13073,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":1274,"benefit":13076,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":13072,"sourceUrl":13073,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"FDA approved efficacy",{"id":114,"benefit":10450,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":13072,"sourceUrl":13073,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":1271,"benefit":13079,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":13072,"sourceUrl":13073,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Metabolic benefits",{"id":8134,"benefit":13081,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":13082,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},"HIV Lipodystrophy: 15-18% VAT reduction; improved triglycerides","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18057338/",{"id":8137,"benefit":13084,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":13085,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},"NAFLD Prevention: Reduces liver fat, prevents fibrosis","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32701508/",{"id":10332,"benefit":13087,"benefitCategory":10472,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},"Visceral fat reduction: -34 cm² vs +8 cm² placebo (p=0.005)",{"id":10337,"benefit":13089,"benefitCategory":6289,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},"Hepatic fat reduction: -4.1% absolute reduction (p=0.018)",{"id":10343,"benefit":13091,"benefitCategory":2570,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},"First FDA-approved treatment for HIV-associated lipodystrophy",[13093,13094,13095,13096,13097,13098,13099,13100,13101,13102],{"id":111,"benefit":13071,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":13072,"sourceUrl":13073,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":1268,"benefit":6268,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":13072,"sourceUrl":13073,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":1274,"benefit":13076,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":13072,"sourceUrl":13073,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":114,"benefit":10450,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":13072,"sourceUrl":13073,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":1271,"benefit":13079,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":13072,"sourceUrl":13073,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":8134,"benefit":13081,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":13082,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":8137,"benefit":13084,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":13085,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":10332,"benefit":13087,"benefitCategory":10472,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":10337,"benefit":13089,"benefitCategory":6289,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":10343,"benefit":13091,"benefitCategory":2570,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},[13104,13106,13108,13109,13111,13112,13114,13116,13117,13118,13121,13124,13127,13130],{"id":5052,"sideEffect":13105,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":13073,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Arthralgia",{"id":10452,"sideEffect":13107,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":13073,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Hyperglycemia",{"id":3963,"sideEffect":1900,"description":23,"severity":2597,"frequency":2598,"source":24,"sourceType":24,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":23,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":4074,"sideEffect":13110,"description":23,"severity":2597,"frequency":2598,"source":24,"sourceType":24,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":23,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Arthralgia (joint pain)",{"id":10541,"sideEffect":112,"description":23,"severity":2597,"frequency":2598,"source":24,"sourceType":24,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":23,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":10547,"sideEffect":13113,"description":23,"severity":2597,"frequency":2598,"source":24,"sourceType":24,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":23,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Peripheral edema",{"id":10552,"sideEffect":13115,"description":23,"severity":10494,"frequency":2598,"source":24,"sourceType":24,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":23,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Transient glucose elevation (9 mg/dL increase at 2 weeks)",{"id":5498,"sideEffect":1900,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":13073,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":8984,"sideEffect":13113,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":13073,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":68,"sideEffect":13119,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":23,"source":44,"sourceType":44,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":13120,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Arthralgia, edema","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21668043/",{"id":71,"sideEffect":13122,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":23,"source":44,"sourceType":44,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":13123,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Glucose parameters","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20554713/",{"id":13125,"sideEffect":398,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":13126,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":6633,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":13065,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":6343,"management":402,"doseDependent":15,"needsReview":15},493,"Very common (25%)",{"id":13128,"sideEffect":1878,"description":23,"severity":1879,"frequency":13129,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":6633,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":13065,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":11450,"management":6346,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},494,"Common (>5%)",{"id":13131,"sideEffect":1878,"description":23,"severity":1879,"frequency":13132,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":6633,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":13065,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":10013,"management":13133,"doseDependent":15,"needsReview":15},495,"Common (4%)","Discontinue if severe",[13135,13136,13137,13138,13139,13140,13141,13142,13143,13144,13145,13146,13147,13148],{"id":5052,"sideEffect":13105,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":13073,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":10452,"sideEffect":13107,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":13073,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":3963,"sideEffect":1900,"description":23,"severity":2597,"frequency":2598,"source":24,"sourceType":24,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":23,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":4074,"sideEffect":13110,"description":23,"severity":2597,"frequency":2598,"source":24,"sourceType":24,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":23,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":10541,"sideEffect":112,"description":23,"severity":2597,"frequency":2598,"source":24,"sourceType":24,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":23,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":10547,"sideEffect":13113,"description":23,"severity":2597,"frequency":2598,"source":24,"sourceType":24,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":23,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":10552,"sideEffect":13115,"description":23,"severity":10494,"frequency":2598,"source":24,"sourceType":24,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":23,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":5498,"sideEffect":1900,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":13073,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":8984,"sideEffect":13113,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":13073,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":68,"sideEffect":13119,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":23,"source":44,"sourceType":44,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":13120,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":71,"sideEffect":13122,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":23,"source":44,"sourceType":44,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":13123,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":13125,"sideEffect":398,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":13126,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":6633,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":13065,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":6343,"management":402,"doseDependent":15,"needsReview":15},{"id":13128,"sideEffect":1878,"description":23,"severity":1879,"frequency":13129,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":6633,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":13065,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":11450,"management":6346,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},{"id":13131,"sideEffect":1878,"description":23,"severity":1879,"frequency":13132,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":6633,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":13065,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":10013,"management":13133,"doseDependent":15,"needsReview":15},"2 mg Daily","GHRH analogue that reduces visceral fat","FDA approved with established safety profile for HIV-associated lipodystrophy.","Synthetic GHRH analog with growth hormone releasing factor sequence",[13154,13158,13162,13165,13169,13174,13176,13182,13187,13193,13198,13203,13207,13213,13219,13224,13229,13235,13240,13245,13250,13255,13261],{"id":9484,"title":13155,"authors":155,"journal":7022,"year":458,"citationType":158,"doi":13156,"researchPaperId":13157},"Tesamorelin (Egrifta) for HIV-Associated Lipodystrophy: 10-Year Review","10.1007/s12020-024-03821-w","pubmed_40128934",{"id":13159,"title":13160,"authors":8255,"journal":12549,"year":1122,"citationType":167,"doi":13161},1883,"Spotlight on tesamorelin in HIV-associated lipodystrophy.","10.2165/11208290-000000000-00000",{"id":13163,"title":13164,"authors":6526,"journal":6526,"year":1196,"citationType":167},1874,"Tesamorelin.",{"id":13166,"title":13167,"authors":8255,"journal":6786,"year":1122,"citationType":167,"doi":13168},1875,"Tesamorelin: a review of its use in the management of HIV-associated lipodystrophy.","10.2165/11202240-000000000-00000",{"id":13170,"title":13171,"authors":13172,"journal":3352,"year":1384,"citationType":167,"doi":13173},1876,"Tesamorelin, a human growth hormone releasing factor analogue.","Wang Y, Tomlinson B","10.1517/13543780802707658",{"id":13175,"title":155,"authors":6526,"journal":6526,"year":1049,"citationType":167},1877,{"id":13177,"title":13178,"authors":13179,"journal":13180,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":13181},1878,"Efficacy and safety of tesamorelin in people with HIV on integrase inhibitors.","Russo SC, Ockene MW, Arpante AK, Johnson JE, Lee H, Toribio M, Stanley TL, Hadigan CM, Grinspoon SK, Erlandson KM, Fourman LT","AIDS (London, England)","10.1097/QAD.0000000000003965",{"id":13183,"title":13184,"authors":13185,"journal":13180,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":13186},1879,"Tesamorelin improves fat quality independent of changes in fat quantity.","Lake JE, La K, Erlandson KM, Adrian S, Yenokyan G, Scherzinger A, Dubé MP, Stanley T, Grinspoon S, Falutz J, Mamputu JC, Marsolais C, McComsey GA, Brown TT","10.1097/QAD.0000000000002897",{"id":13188,"title":13189,"authors":13190,"journal":13191,"year":1196,"citationType":167,"doi":13192},1880,"Tesamorelin: a growth hormone-releasing factor analogue for HIV-associated lipodystrophy.","Spooner LM, Olin JL","The Annals of pharmacotherapy","10.1345/aph.1Q629",{"id":13194,"title":13195,"authors":13196,"journal":471,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":13197},1881,"Effects of tesamorelin on hepatic transcriptomic signatures in HIV-associated NAFLD.","Fourman LT, Billingsley JM, Agyapong G, Ho Sui SJ, Feldpausch MN, Purdy J, Zheng I, Pan CS, Corey KE, Torriani M, Kleiner DE, Hadigan CM, Stanley TL, Chung RT, Grinspoon SK","10.1172/jci.insight.140134",{"id":13199,"title":13200,"authors":13201,"journal":1006,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":13202},1882,"Delineating tesamorelin response pathways in HIV-associated NAFLD using a targeted proteomic and transcriptomic approach.","Fourman LT, Stanley TL, Billingsley JM, Sui SJH, Feldpausch MN, Boutin A, Zheng I, McClure CM, Corey KE, Torriani M, Kleiner DE, Hadigan CM, Chung RT, Grinspoon SK","10.1038/s41598-021-89966-y",{"id":13204,"title":13205,"authors":13206,"journal":6383,"year":3074,"citationType":167},1884,"Drug evaluation: tesamorelin, a synthetic human growth hormone releasing factor.","Tomlinson B",{"id":13208,"title":13209,"authors":13210,"journal":13211,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":13212},1885,"Effect of tesamorelin in people with HIV with and without dorsocervical fat: Post hoc analysis of phase III double-blind placebo-controlled trial.","Rahman F, McLaughlin T, Mesquita P, Morin J, Potvin D, De Chantal M, Aberg JA","Journal of clinical and translational science","10.1017/cts.2022.515",{"id":13214,"title":13215,"authors":13216,"journal":13217,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":13218},1886,"Tesamorelin, liver fat, and NAFLD in the setting of HIV.","Audsley J, Sasadeusz J, Lewin SR","The lancet. HIV","10.1016/S2352-3018(19)30331-5",{"id":13220,"title":13221,"authors":13222,"journal":2865,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":13223},1887,"Effects of Tesamorelin on Neurocognitive Impairment in Persons With HIV and Abdominal Obesity.","Ellis RJ, Vaida F, Hu K, Dube M, Henry B, Chow F, Heaton RK, Lee D, Sattler F","10.1093/infdis/jiaf012",{"id":13225,"title":13226,"authors":13227,"journal":13217,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":13228},1888,"Effects of tesamorelin on non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in HIV: a randomised, double-blind, multicentre trial.","Stanley TL, Fourman LT, Feldpausch MN, Purdy J, Zheng I, Pan CS, Aepfelbacher J, Buckless C, Tsao A, Kellogg A, Branch K, Lee H, Liu CY, Corey KE, Chung RT, Torriani M, Kleiner DE, Hadigan CM, Grinspoon SK","10.1016/S2352-3018(19)30338-8",{"id":13230,"title":13231,"authors":13232,"journal":13233,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":13234},1889,"Population pharmacokinetic analysis of tesamorelin in HIV-infected patients and healthy subjects.","González-Sales M, Barrière O, Tremblay PO, Nekka F, Mamputu JC, Boudreault S, Tanguay M","Clinical pharmacokinetics","10.1007/s40262-014-0202-x",{"id":13236,"title":13237,"authors":13238,"journal":13180,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":13239},1890,"Visceral fat reduction with tesamorelin is associated with improved liver enzymes in HIV.","Fourman LT, Czerwonka N, Feldpausch MN, Weiss J, Mamputu JC, Falutz J, Morin J, Marsolais C, Stanley TL, Grinspoon SK","10.1097/QAD.0000000000001614",{"id":13241,"title":13242,"authors":13243,"journal":13244,"year":1105,"citationType":167},1891,"Tesamorelin update.","O'Neal R","BETA : bulletin of experimental treatments for AIDS : a publication of the San Francisco AIDS Foundation",{"id":13246,"title":13247,"authors":13248,"journal":1419,"year":1152,"citationType":167,"doi":13249},1892,"The effects of tesamorelin on phosphocreatine recovery in obese subjects with reduced GH.","Makimura H, Murphy CA, Feldpausch MN, Grinspoon SK","10.1210/jc.2013-3436",{"id":13251,"title":13252,"authors":13253,"journal":13180,"year":1122,"citationType":167,"doi":13254},1893,"Effects of tesamorelin on inflammatory markers in HIV patients with excess abdominal fat: relationship with visceral adipose reduction.","Stanley TL, Falutz J, Mamputu JC, Soulban G, Potvin D, Grinspoon SK","10.1097/QAD.0b013e328347f3f1",{"id":13256,"title":13257,"authors":13258,"journal":13259,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":13260},1894,"The Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone Analogue, Tesamorelin, Decreases Muscle Fat and Increases Muscle Area in Adults with HIV.","Adrian S, Scherzinger A, Sanyal A, Lake JE, Falutz J, Dubé MP, Stanley T, Grinspoon S, Mamputu JC, Marsolais C, Brown TT, Erlandson KM","The Journal of frailty & aging","10.14283/jfa.2018.45",{"id":13262,"title":13263,"authors":13264,"journal":13265,"year":1196,"citationType":167,"doi":13266},1895,"Reduction in visceral adiposity is associated with an improved metabolic profile in HIV-infected patients receiving tesamorelin.","Stanley TL, Falutz J, Marsolais C, Morin J, Soulban G, Mamputu JC, Assaad H, Turner R, Grinspoon SK","Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America","10.1093/cid/cis251",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":1928,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":13269},"2026-01-05T22:12:07.089570","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/tesamorelin.webp","5135.86","C221H364N72O67S","DB06253","44147413","8-37 minutes","218949-48-5","CC/C=C/CC(=O)N[C@@H](CC1=CC=C(C=C1)O)C(=O)N[C@@H](C)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(=O)O)C(=O)N[C@@H](C)C(=O)N[C@@H]([C@@H](C)CC)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC2=CC=CC=C2)C(=O)N[C@@H]([C@@H](C)O)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(=O)N)C(=O)N[C@@H](CO)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC3=CC=C(C=C3)O)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCNC(=N)N)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCCN)C(=O)N[C@@H](C(C)C)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(C)C)C(=O)NCC(=O)N[C@@H](CCC(=O)N)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(C)C)C(=O)N[C@@H](CO)C(=O)N[C@@H](C)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCNC(=N)N)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCCN)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(C)C)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(C)C)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCC(=O)N)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(=O)O)C(=O)N[C@@H]([C@@H](C)CC)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCSC)C(=O)N[C@@H](CO)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCNC(=N)N)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCC(=O)N)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCC(=O)N)C(=O)NCC(=O)N[C@@H](CCC(=O)O)C(=O)N[C@@H](CO)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(=O)N)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCC(=O)N)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCC(=O)O)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCNC(=N)N)C(=O)NCC(=O)N[C@@H](C)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCNC(=N)N)C(=O)N[C@@H](C)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCNC(=N)N)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(C)C)C(=O)N",[13279,13283,13287,13292,13295,13299],{"name":13280,"dose":13281,"frequency":1801,"route":13282},"HIV Lipodystrophy (FDA Approved)","1.4 mg daily","Subcutaneous injection (abdomen)",{"name":13284,"dose":13285,"frequency":1801,"route":13286},"Visceral Fat Reduction","2 mg daily","Subcutaneous injection (rotate sites)",{"name":13288,"dose":13289,"frequency":13290,"route":13291},"Anti-aging/Body Composition","1-2 mg daily","5-7 days/week","Subcutaneous injection (evening)",{"name":13293,"dose":13285,"frequency":1801,"route":13294},"NAFLD Treatment","Subcutaneous injection for 12 months",{"name":13296,"dose":13297,"frequency":1801,"route":13298},"Cognitive Enhancement (Research)","1 mg daily","Subcutaneous injection for 20 weeks",{"name":3591,"dose":13289,"frequency":310,"route":13300},"Subcutaneous with cycle breaks",[13302,13303,13304,13305],"Tesamorelin acetate","Egrifta","Egrifta SV","TH9507",[13307,13308,13309,13310],"HIV-associated lipodystrophy / visceral fat","Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD)","Growth hormone-releasing hormone pharmacology","Aging and cognition (investigational)",{"human":13312,"animal":13313,"inVitro":13314,"uncertain":13315},"Tesamorelin is FDA approved (Egrifta, 2010) to reduce excess abdominal (visceral) fat in HIV patients with lipodystrophy. The pivotal randomized trial (NEJM 2007) showed significant reductions in visceral adipose tissue with preservation of subcutaneous fat; later randomized work found reduced hepatic fat in HIV-associated NAFLD.","Preclinical studies of GHRH analogs in animal models support the mechanism of endogenous GH stimulation and effects on fat distribution.","Cell-based pharmacology characterizes tesamorelin as a GHRH analog that activates the pituitary GHRH receptor to stimulate endogenous GH secretion.","Off-label uses — age-related body-composition changes, NAFLD in non-HIV patients, and cognitive effects in aging (e.g., in older adults with mild cognitive impairment) — remain investigational, with early-stage or mixed data.",[13317,13320,13324],{"finding":13318,"source":6839,"year":290,"link":13319,"evidenceLevel":46},"In a randomized, double-blind trial in HIV patients with lipodystrophy, tesamorelin significantly reduced visceral adipose tissue compared with placebo while preserving subcutaneous fat.","https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa072375",{"finding":13321,"source":13322,"year":451,"link":13323,"evidenceLevel":46},"In HIV-associated NAFLD, analysis of liver biopsies from a randomized tesamorelin trial showed the drug shifted hepatic transcriptomic signatures, consistent with improvement of disease-related gene-expression programs.","Randomized trial substudy (JCI Insight)","https://doi.org/10.1172/jci.insight.140134",{"finding":13325,"source":13326,"year":1105,"link":13327,"evidenceLevel":46},"The FDA approved tesamorelin (Egrifta) in 2010 as the first treatment for HIV-associated lipodystrophy (excess abdominal fat).","FDA approval (Egrifta, NDA 022505)","https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=022505","Approved only for HIV lipodystrophy; common adverse effects are injection-site reactions and joint pain, and IGF-1 levels rise with treatment. Off-label uses (aging, NASH, cognition) are investigational with limited or mixed trial data; long-term cardiovascular outcomes are not established.","Tesamorelin is a synthetic 44-amino-acid GHRH analog given by once-daily subcutaneous injection; it stimulates endogenous, pulsatile GH secretion from the pituitary (rather than supplying exogenous GH).",[13331,13334,13337],{"question":13332,"answer":13333},"What is tesamorelin approved for?","Reducing excess abdominal (visceral) fat in HIV-infected patients with lipodystrophy (brand name Egrifta, approved 2010).",{"question":13335,"answer":13336},"Is tesamorelin the same as growth hormone?","No — it is a GHRH analog that stimulates the pituitary to secrete the body's own growth hormone, unlike direct GH administration.",{"question":13338,"answer":13339},"Is tesamorelin approved for weight loss in general?","No. Use for general weight loss, aging, or NASH outside the HIV indication is off-label and investigational.",{"id":7490,"name":10170,"slug":13341,"description":13342,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":15,"views":8,"shortDescription":13343,"researchStatus":6038,"dosage":13344,"mechanism":13345,"safetyNote":13346,"athleteWarning":23,"chemicalMakeup":23,"molecularWeight":13347,"molecularFormula":23,"sequence":23,"halfLife":13348,"administrationRoute":5863,"benefits":13349,"peptideBenefits":13356,"sideEffects":13360,"peptideSideEffects":13361,"citations":13362,"protocols":13372,"compatiblePeptides":13383,"research":13391,"statsCache":13392,"imageUrl":13393,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"totalMentions":8,"aliases":13394,"researchAreas":13399,"evidence":13403,"keyStudies":13407,"limitations":13411,"pharmacology":13412,"faqs":13413,"lastReviewed":359},"cjc-1295-dac","CJC-1295 with DAC (Drug Affinity Complex) is a modified version of growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH) engineered for extended duration. The addition of DAC technology extends the half-life to 6-8 days, providing continuous growth hormone elevation rather than pulsatile release. This long-acting formulation offers convenience but differs significantly from natural GH secretion patterns.","CJC-1295 with DAC (Drug Affinity Complex) is a modified version of growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH) engineered for extended duration.","1mg","DAC technology binds to albumin, extending half-life to 6-8 days and providing continuous GHRH receptor stimulation","Higher side effect incidence than pulsatile protocols. Common: Water retention, joint pain, carpal tunnel symptoms. Monitor for signs of excessive GH: jaw growth, hand/feet enlargement. Not suitable for those with diabetes or cancer history. May worsen sleep apnea in predisposed individuals. Regular IGF-1 monitoring recommended for long-term use.","3647.28","6 days – 8 days",[13350,13352,13354],{"id":1068,"benefit":13351,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},"Convenient weekly dosing",{"id":1074,"benefit":13353,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},"sustained GH/IGF-1 elevation",{"id":1079,"benefit":13355,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},"significant body composition changes",[13357,13358,13359],{"id":1068,"benefit":13351,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},{"id":1074,"benefit":13353,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},{"id":1079,"benefit":13355,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},[],[],[13363,13366,13369],{"id":13364,"title":13365,"authors":155,"journal":23,"year":1516,"citationType":24,"doi":155,"researchPaperId":23},2135,"Comparative Pharmacokinetics: DAC vs Non-DAC Variants (2015)",{"id":13367,"title":13368,"authors":155,"journal":23,"year":1196,"citationType":24,"doi":155,"researchPaperId":23},2136,"Long-term Effects on GH/IGF-1 Axis (2012)",{"id":13370,"title":13371,"authors":155,"journal":23,"year":229,"citationType":24,"doi":155,"researchPaperId":23},2137,"Dose-Response Relationship of CJC-1295 DAC (2008)",[13373,13375,13377,13380],{"name":13374,"dose":13344,"frequency":7055,"route":311},"Conservative Anti-Aging",{"name":13376,"dose":13022,"frequency":7055,"route":311},"Standard Protocol",{"name":13378,"dose":13344,"frequency":13379,"route":311},"Split Dosing","Twice weekly (Mon/Thu)",{"name":13381,"dose":13382,"frequency":8344,"route":311},"Loading Protocol","2mg first week, then 1mg",[13384,13385,13386,13387,13388,13389,13390],{"slug":11792,"status":6006,"note":6208},{"slug":10821,"status":6006,"note":6208},{"slug":9939,"status":6108,"note":6109},{"slug":12073,"status":6108,"note":6109},{"slug":13066,"status":6108,"note":6109},{"slug":11412,"status":6108,"note":6109},{"slug":12452,"status":6006,"note":6208},[],{"totalProtocols":2486,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":8,"researchPaperCount":2222,"lastCalculated":23},"/images/peptides/cjc-1295-dac.svg",[10170,13395,13396,13397,13398],"Drug Affinity Complex","DAC:GHRH","Long-acting GHRH analog","Modified GHRH (1-29)",[13400,13401,13402],"Growth hormone / IGF-1 modulation","Anti-aging and body-composition research","GHRH analog pharmacology",{"human":13404,"animal":13405,"inVitro":23,"uncertain":13406},"A 2006 randomized, placebo-controlled study in healthy adults (Teichman et al., J Clin Endocrinol Metab, PMID 16352683) showed a single subcutaneous dose of CJC-1295 produced prolonged, dose-dependent increases in GH and IGF-1 secretion over several days.","Preclinical studies in rodents confirm sustained GH/IGF-1 elevation and biological activity of the DAC-conjugated GHRH analog; data are limited and mostly pharmacokinetic.","No long-term human safety or efficacy data exist for growth, body composition, or aging outcomes; the compound is not FDA-approved and is used almost exclusively as an unregulated research/bodybuilding peptide. Claims about 'pulsatile-like' GH patterns are speculative.",[13408],{"finding":13409,"source":13410,"year":3074,"link":9959,"evidenceLevel":46},"A single subcutaneous dose of CJC-1295 in healthy adults produced dose-dependent, prolonged elevation of GH and IGF-1 lasting several days, consistent with its long-acting DAC design.","Randomized, placebo-controlled clinical study (J Clin Endocrinol Metab)","Only one published controlled human pharmacokinetic study; no trials for clinical outcomes (body composition, aging, GH deficiency); no regulatory approval anywhere; long-term safety unknown.","Injectable GHRH analog (modified GHRH 1-29) conjugated to a Drug Affinity Complex (DAC) that binds albumin, extending half-life to roughly 6-8 days versus minutes for native GHRH. The 2006 human study supports sustained GH/IGF-1 stimulation with weekly-dosing intent. Not FDA approved.",[13414,13417],{"question":13415,"answer":13416},"Why does DAC extend the half-life so dramatically?","The DAC moiety binds albumin, protecting the peptide from rapid enzymatic degradation and renal clearance, extending circulating half-life to about a week.",{"question":13418,"answer":13419},"Is CJC-1295 with DAC approved for medical use?","No. It is not FDA-approved; the only published controlled human data are a single 2006 pharmacokinetic study.","https://cbzugwmbrmdvvkvtjpnn.supabase.co/storage/v1/object/public/peptide_category_icons/muscle_growth.png",{"id":294,"slug":13422,"title":13423,"display_order":8,"peptides":13424,"icon":13425},"other","Other",[],"https://cbzugwmbrmdvvkvtjpnn.supabase.co/storage/v1/object/public/peptide_category_icons/growth_hormone.png",{"id":11,"slug":13427,"title":13428,"display_order":8,"peptides":13429,"icon":13513},"pain-management","Pain Management",[13430],{"id":3638,"name":13431,"slug":13432,"description":13433,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":28,"views":6502,"shortDescription":13434,"researchStatus":13435,"peptideBenefits":13436,"benefits":13453,"peptideSideEffects":13460,"sideEffects":13471,"dosage":13476,"mechanism":13477,"safetyNote":13478,"athleteWarning":13479,"chemicalMakeup":13480,"research":13481,"statsCache":13482,"imageUrl":13484,"molecularWeight":13485,"halfLife":13486,"administrationRoute":540,"totalMentions":8,"dataCompleteness":5052,"hasResearchData":15,"aliases":13487,"researchAreas":13491,"evidence":13495,"keyStudies":13500,"limitations":13505,"faqs":13506,"lastReviewed":359},"Glow-Protocol-Blend","glow-protocol-blend","The Glow Protocol typically refers to a combination of peptides designed for skin improvement, often including GHK-Cu, BPC-157, and other skin-beneficial peptides. This multi-peptide approach aims to enhance collagen production, reduce inflammation, improve skin barrier function, and promote overall skin health and radiance. Protocols vary but generally focus on both oral and topical peptide applications for comprehensive skin rejuvenation.","Peptide combination protocol for skin rejuvenation and radiance","Research compound - Multi-peptide recovery blend",[13437,13440,13442,13445,13448,13450],{"id":13438,"benefit":13439,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},389,"Comprehensive tissue repair",{"id":13441,"benefit":3009,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},390,{"id":13443,"benefit":13444,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},391,"Enhanced collagen production",{"id":13446,"benefit":13447,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},392,"Improved tissue quality",{"id":13449,"benefit":9539,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},393,{"id":13451,"benefit":13452,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},394,"Better mobility and reduced soreness",[13454,13455,13456,13457,13458,13459],{"id":13438,"benefit":13439,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":13441,"benefit":3009,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":13443,"benefit":13444,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":13446,"benefit":13447,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":13449,"benefit":9539,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":13451,"benefit":13452,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},[13461,13464,13466,13468],{"id":13462,"sideEffect":13463,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},229,"Injection site redness",{"id":13465,"sideEffect":11864,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},230,{"id":13467,"sideEffect":405,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},231,{"id":13469,"sideEffect":13470,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},232,"Rare systemic issues",[13472,13473,13474,13475],{"id":13462,"sideEffect":13463,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":13465,"sideEffect":11864,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":13467,"sideEffect":405,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":13469,"sideEffect":13470,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Research protocols: As directed by healthcare provider - contains BPC-157, TB-500, and GHK-Cu (Research use only)","Synergistic combination targeting multiple repair pathways: nitric oxide/growth factors (BPC-157), actin cytoskeleton/angiogenesis (TB-500), and collagen synthesis/anti-inflammatory (GHK-Cu)","Research compound only. Investigational in the United States. Sensitivity or mild sting may occur due to copper_peptide component.","WADA BANNED - Contains BPC-157 and TB-500 which are both prohibited substances in competitive sports","Blend of BPC-157, TB-500 (Thymosin β4 fragment), and GHK-Cu",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":8,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":13483},"2026-01-05T22:12:02.274616","/images/peptides/glow-protocol-blend.svg","2667","Variable (depends on component peptides)",[13488,13489,13490],"Glow protocol","Glow stack","GLOW peptide stack",[13492,13493,13494],"Skin rejuvenation / collagen support (GHK-Cu)","Wound and tissue healing (BPC-157, TB-500/thymosin beta-4)","Multi-peptide 'stack' protocols",{"human":13496,"animal":13497,"inVitro":13498,"uncertain":13499},"No clinical trial tests the combination itself. Individual components have human data: a clinical study found topical copper tripeptide (GHK-Cu) improved healing after CO2 laser resurfacing (Arch Facial Plast Surg 2006), and GHK-Cu is used in commercial skin products; thymosin beta-4 has human trial data in cardiac and ophthalmic settings, though not within this protocol.","BPC-157 shows consistent healing effects (gastrointestinal ulcer healing, tendon/ligament repair) in rodent models; thymosin beta-4 and GHK-Cu also show tissue-repair and angiogenic effects in animal studies.","GHK-Cu stimulates collagen synthesis and fibroblast activity in cell culture; BPC-157 modulates angiogenesis-related gene expression in cell assays.","The specific combination, dosing, and skin-rejuvenation claims of the 'glow protocol' are unvalidated; reported results are largely anecdotal and driven by marketing.",[13501],{"finding":13502,"source":13503,"year":3074,"link":13504,"evidenceLevel":46},"Topical copper tripeptide complex (GHK-Cu) improved wound healing after CO2 laser resurfacing in a clinical study.","Clinical study (Arch Facial Plast Surg)","https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1001/archfaci.8.4.252","The 'glow protocol' is a non-standardized, market-driven combination (typically GHK-Cu + BPC-157 + TB-500), not a regulated product or trial intervention. Evidence must be attributed to individual components; there are no data on the blend's safety, dosing, or efficacy, and BPC-157 specifically lacks robust human trials.",[13507,13510],{"question":13508,"answer":13509},"What is the glow protocol?","A popular 'stack' of peptides — typically GHK-Cu, BPC-157 and thymosin beta-4 (TB-500) — marketed for skin quality, healing, and 'radiance'. It is not an approved medical treatment.",{"question":13511,"answer":13512},"Is the glow protocol supported by clinical trials?","No trial has tested the combination. Individual components, especially GHK-Cu, have some clinical data for skin healing, but the blend itself is unvalidated.","https://cbzugwmbrmdvvkvtjpnn.supabase.co/storage/v1/object/public/peptide_category_icons/pain_management.png",{"id":1788,"slug":13515,"title":13516,"display_order":8,"peptides":13517,"icon":15508},"performance-enhancement","Performance Enhancement",[13518,13757,14016,14246,14473,14835,14951,15090,15321,15424],{"id":12720,"name":13519,"slug":13520,"description":13521,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":28,"views":3638,"shortDescription":13522,"researchStatus":13523,"peptideBenefits":13524,"benefits":13540,"peptideSideEffects":13547,"sideEffects":13557,"dosage":13562,"mechanism":13563,"safetyNote":148,"athleteWarning":13564,"chemicalMakeup":13565,"citations":13566,"research":13708,"statsCache":13709,"imageUrl":13711,"molecularWeight":13712,"molecularFormula":13713,"pubchemId":13714,"sequence":13715,"halfLife":13716,"administrationRoute":13717,"casNumber":13718,"smiles":13719,"totalMentions":532,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"aliases":13720,"researchAreas":13725,"evidence":13730,"keyStudies":13735,"limitations":13748,"pharmacology":13749,"faqs":13750,"lastReviewed":359},"AICAR","aicar","AICAR (5-Aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide ribonucleoside, Acadesine) is an adenosine analog that activates AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), a master regulator of cellular energy homeostasis. AMPK activation mimics many metabolic effects of exercise, leading to AICAR's classification as an \"exercise mimetic.\" Research demonstrates AICAR enhances fat oxidation, improves glucose uptake in skeletal muscle, increases mitochondrial biogenesis, and enhances endurance capacity. Studies in mice showed 44% improvement in running endurance without exercise training. The compound activates AMPK by being converted to ZMP, which mimics the effects of elevated AMP levels. Beyond metabolic effects, AMPK activation influences autophagy, inflammation, and cellular stress responses. Research indicates potential applications for obesity, type 2 diabetes, metabolic syndrome, and conditions of physical deconditioning. AICAR was initially developed for cardiac ischemia protection and has cardioprotective properties. The compound is prohibited by WADA in competitive sports due to its performance-enhancing effects.","AMPK activator for endurance enhancement and metabolic optimization","Research compound - AMPK activator",[13525,13527,13529,13531,13534,13537],{"id":13465,"benefit":13526,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Enhanced endurance",{"id":13467,"benefit":13528,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Metabolic efficiency",{"id":13469,"benefit":13530,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Fat oxidation",{"id":13532,"benefit":13533,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},233,"Glucose uptake",{"id":13535,"benefit":13536,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},234,"Mitochondrial biogenesis",{"id":13538,"benefit":13539,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},235,"Exercise mimetic effects",[13541,13542,13543,13544,13545,13546],{"id":13465,"benefit":13526,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":13467,"benefit":13528,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":13469,"benefit":13530,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":13532,"benefit":13533,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":13535,"benefit":13536,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":13538,"benefit":13539,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},[13548,13551,13553,13555],{"id":13549,"sideEffect":13550,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},150,"Rare cardiac effects",{"id":13552,"sideEffect":1272,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},147,{"id":13554,"sideEffect":112,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},148,{"id":13556,"sideEffect":405,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},149,[13558,13559,13560,13561],{"id":13549,"sideEffect":13550,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":13552,"sideEffect":1272,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":13554,"sideEffect":112,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":13556,"sideEffect":405,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"50-500mg IV/SC","AMPK activator for endurance and metabolic benefits","WADA BANNED - Prohibited in competitive sports as metabolic modulator","Nucleoside analog, AMPK activator",[13567,13571,13576,13581,13585,13589,13594,13599,13605,13610,13615,13619,13623,13628,13633,13639,13644,13649,13654,13659,13664,13669,13673,13677,13681,13687,13693,13698,13704],{"id":12084,"title":13568,"authors":13569,"journal":516,"year":157,"citationType":44,"doi":13570},"Purine Nucleotide Precursors in Preventing Myocardial Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury.","Pawel Tomasz Musial, Piotr Arkadiusz Badtke, Magdalena Agnieszka Zabielska-Kaczorowska","10.3390/ijms23094695",{"id":12079,"title":13572,"authors":13573,"journal":13574,"year":157,"citationType":44,"doi":13575},"Quercetin alleviates ethanol-induced hepatocyte senescence by interacting with glycinamide ribonucleotide transformylase.","Chen Huimin, Peng Shufen, Cui Zhaoyu, Liu Jiaxin, Chen Li","Food research international (Ottawa, Ont.)","10.1016/j.foodres.2025.117392",{"id":12087,"title":13577,"authors":13578,"journal":13579,"year":157,"citationType":44,"doi":13580},"When is a sample a urine sample? Markers for urine sample authenticity assessment in sports drug testing.","T Piper, H Geyer, F Huelsemann, U Mareck, K Walpurgis","Bioanalysis","10.1002/rcm.7891",{"id":10452,"title":13582,"authors":155,"journal":7171,"year":458,"citationType":158,"doi":13583,"researchPaperId":13584},"AICAR and AMPK Activation: Exercise Mimetic Effects","10.1016/j.cmet.2024.07.015","pubmed_39125678",{"id":11438,"title":13586,"authors":13587,"journal":2041,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":13588},"AICAr, a Widely Used AMPK Activator with Important AMPK-Independent Effects: A Systematic Review.","Višnjić D, Lalić H, Dembitz V, Tomić B, Smoljo T","10.3390/cells10051095",{"id":11441,"title":13590,"authors":13591,"journal":13592,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":13593},"AICAR confers prophylactic cardioprotection in doxorubicin-induced heart failure in rats.","Choksey A, Carter RD, Thackray BD, Ball V, Kennedy BWC, Ha LHT, Sharma E, Broxholme J, Castro-Guarda M, Murphy MP, Heather LC, Tyler DJ, Timm KN","Journal of molecular and cellular cardiology","10.1016/j.yjmcc.2024.04.011",{"id":11444,"title":13595,"authors":13596,"journal":13597,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":13598},"AICAR suppresses cell proliferation and synergizes with decitabine in myelodysplastic syndrome via DNA damage induction.","Liu J, Liang L, Li X, Peng YL, Zhang J, Wang XL, Liu J, Nie L","Biotechnology letters","10.1007/s10529-021-03112-2",{"id":13600,"title":13601,"authors":13602,"journal":13603,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":13604},144,"Regulation of LRRK2 mRNA stability by ATIC and its substrate AICAR through ARE-mediated mRNA decay in Parkinson's disease.","Liu Q, Zhu D, Li N, Chen S, Hu L, Yu J, Xiong Y","The EMBO journal","10.15252/embj.2022113410",{"id":13606,"title":13607,"authors":13608,"journal":516,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":13609},145,"Administration of AICAR, an AMPK Activator, Prevents and Reverses Diabetic Polyneuropathy (DPN) by Regulating Mitophagy.","Chandrasekaran K, Choi J, Salimian M, Hedayat AF, Russell JW","10.3390/ijms26010080",{"id":13611,"title":13612,"authors":13613,"journal":1990,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":13614},146,"AICAR attenuates postoperative abdominal adhesion formation by inhibiting oxidative stress and promoting mesothelial cell repair.","Wu Y, Duan X, Gao Z, Yang N, Xue F","10.1371/journal.pone.0272928",{"id":13552,"title":13616,"authors":13617,"journal":5568,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":13618},"AICAR stimulates mitochondrial biogenesis and BCAA catabolic enzyme expression in C2C12 myotubes.","Hinkle JS, Rivera CN, Vaughan RA","10.1016/j.biochi.2021.11.004",{"id":13554,"title":13620,"authors":13621,"journal":2137,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":13622},"Liposome-encapsulated AICAR hydrogel regulates macrophage metabolic reprogramming via SIK1 activation to alleviate osteoarthritis.","Fu Y, Hou J, Yang Q, Lin Y, Rui N, Wang J, Wu H, Yu B","10.1186/s12951-025-03543-3",{"id":13556,"title":13624,"authors":13625,"journal":13626,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":13627},"AICAR decreases acute lung injury by phosphorylating AMPK and upregulating heme oxygenase-1.","Ahmad I, Molyvdas A, Jian MY, Zhou T, Traylor AM, Cui H, Liu G, Song W, Agarwal A, Jilling T, Aggarwal S, Matalon S","The European respiratory journal","10.1183/13993003.03694-2020",{"id":13549,"title":13629,"authors":13630,"journal":13631,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":13632},"An intrinsic purine metabolite AICAR blocks lung tumour growth by targeting oncoprotein mucin 1.","Aftab F, Rodriguez-Fuguet A, Silva L, Kobayashi IS, Sun J, Politi K, Levantini E, Zhang W, Kobayashi SS, Zhang WC","British journal of cancer","10.1038/s41416-023-02196-z",{"id":13634,"title":13635,"authors":13636,"journal":13637,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":13638},151,"Aicar effect in early neuronal development.","Torres RJ, Puig JG","Nucleosides, nucleotides & nucleic acids","10.1080/15257770.2018.1453073",{"id":13640,"title":13641,"authors":13642,"journal":773,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":13643},152,"AICAR, an AMPK activator, protects against cisplatin-induced acute kidney injury through the JAK/STAT/SOCS pathway.","Tsogbadrakh B, Ryu H, Ju KD, Lee J, Yun S, Yu KS, Kim HJ, Ahn C, Oh KH","10.1016/j.bbrc.2018.12.159",{"id":13645,"title":13646,"authors":13647,"journal":3452,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":13648},153,"AICAr to SAICAr ratio can serve as additional marker of AICAr use.","Sobolevsky T, Piper T, Ahrens B, Thevis M","10.1002/dta.3399",{"id":13650,"title":13651,"authors":13652,"journal":4196,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":13653},154,"AMPK activation by AICAR reduces diet induced fatty liver in C57BL/6 mice.","Krishnan U A, Viswanathan P, Venkataraman AC","10.1016/j.tice.2023.102054",{"id":13655,"title":13656,"authors":13657,"journal":1962,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":13658},155,"AICAR prolongs corneal allograft survival via the AMPK-mTOR signaling pathway in mice.","Jiang L, Liu T, Xie L, Ouyang C, Ji J, Huang T","10.1016/j.biopha.2019.01.019",{"id":13660,"title":13661,"authors":13662,"journal":516,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":13663},156,"AICAR Ameliorates Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease via Modulation of the HGF/NF-κB/SNARK Signaling Pathway and Restores Mitochondrial and Endoplasmic Reticular Impairments in High-Fat Diet-Fed Rats.","Zineldeen DH, Tahoon NM, Sarhan NI","10.3390/ijms24043367",{"id":13665,"title":13666,"authors":13667,"journal":773,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":13668},157,"AICAR activates ER stress-dependent apoptosis in gallbladder cancer cells.","Nie J, Liu A, Tan Q, Zhao K, Hu K, Li Y, Yan B, Zhou L","10.1016/j.bbrc.2016.11.050",{"id":10232,"title":13670,"authors":13671,"journal":11029,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":13672},"AICAr suppresses cell proliferation by inducing NTP and dNTP pool imbalances in acute lymphoblastic leukemia cells.","Du L, Yang F, Fang H, Sun H, Chen Y, Xu Y, Li H, Zheng L, Zhou BS","10.1096/fj.201801559RR",{"id":10235,"title":13674,"authors":13675,"journal":7931,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":13676},"AICAR promotes endothelium-independent vasorelaxation by activating AMP-activated protein kinase via increased ZMP and decreased ATP/ADP ratio in aortic smooth muscle.","Pyla R, Hartney TJ, Segar L","10.1515/jbcpp-2021-0308",{"id":8835,"title":13678,"authors":13679,"journal":516,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":13680},"AICAR Improves Outcomes of Metabolic Syndrome and Type 2 Diabetes Induced by High-Fat Diet in C57Bl/6 Male Mice.","Tukhovskaya EA, Shaykhutdinova ER, Pakhomova IA, Slashcheva GA, Goryacheva NA, Sadovnikova ES, Rasskazova EA, Kazakov VA, Dyachenko IA, Frolova AA, Brovkin AN, Kaluzhsky VE, Beburov MY, Murashev AN","10.3390/ijms232415719",{"id":13682,"title":13683,"authors":13684,"journal":13685,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":13686},161,"AICAR and nicotinamide treatment synergistically augment the proliferation and attenuate senescence-associated changes in mesenchymal stromal cells.","Khorraminejad-Shirazi M, Sani M, Talaei-Khozani T, Dorvash M, Mirzaei M, Faghihi MA, Monabati A, Attar A","Stem cell research & therapy","10.1186/s13287-020-1565-6",{"id":13688,"title":13689,"authors":13690,"journal":13691,"year":1122,"citationType":167,"doi":13692},162,"AICAR, a small chemical molecule, primes osteogenic differentiation of adult mesenchymal stem cells.","Wu W, Ye Z, Zhou Y, Tan WS","The International journal of artificial organs","10.5301/ijao.5000007",{"id":13694,"title":13695,"authors":13696,"journal":773,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":13697},163,"AICAR induces AMPK-independent programmed necrosis in prostate cancer cells.","Guo F, Liu SQ, Gao XH, Zhang LY","10.1016/j.bbrc.2016.04.077",{"id":13699,"title":13700,"authors":13701,"journal":13702,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":13703},164,"Chronic AICAR treatment prevents metabolic changes in cardiomyocytes exposed to free fatty acids.","Viglino C, Foglia B, Montessuit C","Pflugers Archiv : European journal of physiology","10.1007/s00424-019-02285-0",{"id":21,"title":13705,"authors":13706,"journal":13707,"year":1152,"citationType":167},"Metabolic modulators of the exercise response: doping control analysis of an agonist of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor δ (GW501516) and 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide ribonucleotide (AICAR).","Pokrywka A, Cholbinski P, Kaliszewski P, Kowalczyk K, Konczak D, Zembron-Lacny A","Journal of physiology and pharmacology : an official journal of the Polish Physiological Society",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":532,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":13710},"2026-01-05T22:12:11.622015","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/aicar.avif","258.23","C9H14N4O5","65110","MAPGQLALFSVSDKTGLVEFARNLTALGLNLVASGGTAKALRDAGLAVRDVSELTGFPEMLGGRVKTLHPAVHAGILARNIPEDNADMARLDFNLIRVVACNLYPFVKTVASPGVTVEEAVEQIDIGGVTLLRAAAKNHARVTVVCEPEDYVVVSTEMQSSESKDTSLETRRQLALKAFTHTAQYDEAISDYFRKQYSKGVSQMPLRYGMNPHQTPAQLYTLQPKLPITVLNGAPGFINLCDALNAWQLVKELKEALGIPAAASFKHVSPAGAAVGIPLSEDEAKVCMVYDLYKTLTPISAAYARARGADRMSSFGDFVALSDVCDVPTAKIISREVSDGIIAPGYEEEALTILSKKKNGNYCVLQMDQSYKPDENEVRTLFGLHLSQKRNNGVVDKSLFSNVVTKNKDLPESALRDLIVATIAVKYTQSNSVCYAKNGQVIGIGAGQQSRIHCTRLAGDKANYWWLRHHPQVLSMKFKTGVKRAEISNAIDQYVTGTIGEDEDLIKWKALFEEVPELLTEAEKKEWVEKLTEVSISSDAFFPFRDNVDRAKRSGVAYIAAPSGSAADKVVIEACDELGIILAHTNLRLFHH","2 hours","IV/SC","3031-94-5","C1=NC(=C(N1[C@H]2[C@@H]([C@@H]([C@H](O2)COP(=O)(O)O)O)O)N)C(=O)N",[13519,13721,13722,13723,13724],"Acadesine","5-Aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide ribonucleoside","AICA riboside","AICA-riboside",[13726,13727,13728,13729],"Exercise mimetics / AMPK signaling","Metabolic health (glucose uptake, fatty-acid oxidation)","Myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury","Mitochondrial biogenesis / endurance",{"human":13731,"animal":13732,"inVitro":13733,"uncertain":13734},"Acadesine was studied in clinical trials as an adenosine-regulating agent to protect the heart during coronary artery bypass grafting; the randomized RED-CABG trial (JAMA 2012) showed no benefit on morbidity/mortality, and acadesine was never approved.","In sedentary mice, AICAR combined with the PPARδ agonist GW1516 increased running endurance by ~44% without training, the landmark 'exercise mimetic' finding (Narkar et al., Cell 2008); AICAR also increases skeletal-muscle glucose uptake and mitochondrial content in rodent models.","AICAR is phosphorylated intracellularly to ZMP, an AMP analog that allosterically activates AMPK; in cultured muscle cells it enhances glucose uptake and fatty-acid oxidation.","Claims that AICAR delivers human performance or endurance benefits are speculative — human trials targeted cardiac ischemia, not performance, and failed; oral use is not evidence-based.",[13736,13740,13744],{"finding":13737,"source":13738,"year":229,"link":13739,"evidenceLevel":50},"AICAR plus a PPARδ agonist increased running endurance ~44% in sedentary mice without exercise training, establishing AMPK activation as an exercise-mimetic pathway.","Preclinical study (Cell)","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18674809/",{"finding":13741,"source":13742,"year":1196,"link":13743,"evidenceLevel":46},"The RED-CABG randomized trial found the adenosine-regulating agent acadesine had no significant effect on morbidity or mortality after coronary artery bypass grafting.","Randomized controlled trial (JAMA)","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22782417/",{"finding":13745,"source":13746,"year":723,"link":13747,"evidenceLevel":46},"A meta-analysis of five international randomized trials found no benefit of acadesine on myocardial infarction, stroke, or death following cardiac surgery.","Meta-analysis of randomized trials (JAMA)","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9002496/","Human data come from failed cardiac-surgery trials and pharmacokinetic studies, not performance research. No human trial supports endurance, fat-loss, or muscle claims, and the oral bioavailability and dosing used by consumers are uncharacterized in humans.","A purine nucleoside analog that is phosphorylated to ZMP, an AMP mimetic that activates AMPK. Clinical studies administered it intravenously with a short plasma half-life; oral use is not supported by human pharmacokinetic data.",[13751,13754],{"question":13752,"answer":13753},"Is AICAR (acadesine) approved for human use?","No. It is not FDA-approved for any indication; clinical development for cardiac surgery was discontinued after trials showed no benefit.",{"question":13755,"answer":13756},"Does AICAR actually mimic exercise in humans?","The exercise-mimetic effect is documented in mice (Narkar et al., 2008). No human study has demonstrated endurance or performance benefits.",{"id":1221,"name":13758,"slug":13759,"description":13760,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":28,"views":365,"researchStatus":13761,"peptideBenefits":13762,"benefits":13776,"peptideSideEffects":13783,"sideEffects":13802,"dosage":13809,"mechanism":13810,"safetyNote":13811,"athleteWarning":13564,"chemicalMakeup":13812,"citations":13813,"research":13971,"statsCache":13972,"imageUrl":13974,"molecularWeight":13975,"molecularFormula":13976,"pubchemId":13977,"halfLife":13978,"administrationRoute":4541,"casNumber":13979,"smiles":13980,"totalMentions":5,"dataCompleteness":1916,"hasResearchData":28,"aliases":13981,"researchAreas":13986,"evidence":13991,"keyStudies":13996,"limitations":14004,"pharmacology":14005,"faqs":14006,"lastReviewed":359},"Cardarine (GW501516)","cardarine","Cardarine (GW501516) is not a peptide but a synthetic peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta (PPARδ) agonist originally developed for metabolic and cardiovascular diseases. PPARδ activation increases fatty acid oxidation, improves lipid profiles, enhances endurance capacity, and promotes fat metabolism over glucose utilization. Research demonstrated dramatic increases in running endurance in animal studies without exercise training. The compound improves insulin sensitivity, raises HDL cholesterol, and lowers triglycerides. However, development was discontinued after long-term rodent studies showed increased cancer incidence in multiple organs. Despite these safety concerns, Cardarine remains popular in fitness communities for its perceived fat-burning and endurance-enhancing effects. The compound is banned by WADA for competitive athletes. Given the carcinogenicity signals in animal studies, Cardarine carries significant potential risks that have not been evaluated in long-term human trials. The compound is sometimes mistakenly grouped with SARMs despite having a completely different mechanism of action.","Research compound - PPAR-delta agonist",[13763,13765,13768,13771,13774,13775],{"id":13764,"benefit":13526,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},236,{"id":13766,"benefit":13767,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},237,"Fat burning",{"id":13769,"benefit":13770,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},238,"Improved lipid profile",{"id":13772,"benefit":13773,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},239,"Increased HDL cholesterol",{"id":6525,"benefit":1235,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":6528,"benefit":7394,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},[13777,13778,13779,13780,13781,13782],{"id":13764,"benefit":13526,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":13766,"benefit":13767,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":13769,"benefit":13770,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":13772,"benefit":13773,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":6525,"benefit":1235,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":6528,"benefit":7394,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},[13784,13786,13788,13789,13796,13801],{"id":13634,"sideEffect":13785,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Long-term safety concerns",{"id":13640,"sideEffect":13787,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Potential tumor risk at high doses",{"id":13645,"sideEffect":112,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":52,"sideEffect":13790,"description":23,"severity":13791,"frequency":13792,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":13793,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":13758,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":15,"onset":13794,"management":13795,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},"SEVERE/FATAL side effect","SEVERE/FATAL","Very high in animals","wikipedia.org/wiki/GW501516","104 weeks (animal)","DO NOT USE - No approved treatment",{"id":55,"sideEffect":7466,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":13797,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":13798,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":13758,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":15,"onset":13799,"management":13800,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},"Documented","sciencedirect.com","During pregnancy","CONTRAINDICATED",{"id":13650,"sideEffect":1272,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},[13803,13804,13805,13806,13807,13808],{"id":13634,"sideEffect":13785,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":13640,"sideEffect":13787,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":13645,"sideEffect":112,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":52,"sideEffect":13790,"description":23,"severity":13791,"frequency":13792,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":13793,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":13758,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":15,"onset":13794,"management":13795,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},{"id":55,"sideEffect":7466,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":13797,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":13798,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":13758,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":15,"onset":13799,"management":13800,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},{"id":13650,"sideEffect":1272,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"10-20mg daily","PPAR-delta agonist for endurance enhancement","Research compound only. Animal studies raised concerns about tumor development at high doses.","PPAR-delta receptor agonist, non-peptide compound",[13814,13820,13824,13825,13829,13833,13837,13842,13845,13850,13855,13859,13863,13867,13872,13876,13881,13885,13890,13895,13899,13903,13907,13912,13917,13921,13925,13929,13930,13934,13938,13943,13947,13951,13955,13960,13964,13967],{"id":10460,"title":13815,"authors":155,"journal":13816,"year":458,"citationType":13817,"doi":13818,"researchPaperId":13819},"GW501516 (Cardarine): Cancer Risk Assessment and Development Discontinuation","Toxicology Letters","Safety Review","10.1016/j.toxlet.2024.06.012","pubmed_38921456",{"id":2350,"title":13821,"authors":13822,"journal":3452,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":13823},"Testing for GW501516 (cardarine) in human hair using LC/MS-MS and confirmation by LC/HRMS.","Kintz P, Ameline A, Gheddar L, Raul JS","10.1002/dta.2802",{"id":3041,"title":7532,"authors":7533,"journal":7534,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":7535},{"id":3043,"title":13826,"authors":13827,"journal":8483,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":13828},"Differential effects of selective- and pan-PPAR agonists on experimental steatohepatitis and hepatic macrophages().","Lefere S, Puengel T, Hundertmark J, Penners C, Frank AK, Guillot A, de Muynck K, Heymann F, Adarbes V, Defrêne E, Estivalet C, Geerts A, Devisscher L, Wettstein G, Tacke F","10.1016/j.jhep.2020.04.025",{"id":5474,"title":13830,"authors":13831,"journal":3796,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":13832},"Five Novel Polymorphs of Cardarine/GW501516 and Their Characterization by X-ray Diffraction, Computational Methods, Thermal Analysis and a Pharmaceutical Perspective.","Turza A, Pascuta P, Muresan-Pop M, Mare L, Borodi G, Popescu V","10.3390/pharmaceutics16050623",{"id":5479,"title":13834,"authors":13835,"journal":3796,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":13836},"Novel Solid Forms of Cardarine/GW501516 and Their Characterization by X-Ray Diffraction, Thermal, Computational, FTIR, and UV Analysis.","Turza A, Bosca M, Muresan-Pop M, Mare L, Borodi G, Popescu V","10.3390/pharmaceutics17020152",{"id":5482,"title":13838,"authors":13839,"journal":13840,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":13841},"Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor Delta Agonist (PPAR- δ) and Selective Androgen Receptor Modulator (SARM) Abuse: Clinical, Analytical and Biological Data in a Case Involving a Poisonous Combination of GW1516 (Cardarine) and MK2866 (Ostarine).","Kintz P, Gheddar L, Paradis C, Chinellato M, Ameline A, Raul JS, Oliva-Labadie M","Toxics","10.3390/toxics9100251",{"id":9592,"title":13843,"authors":13844,"journal":6383,"year":3074,"citationType":167},"GW-501516 GlaxoSmithKline/Ligand.","Pelton P",{"id":9595,"title":13846,"authors":13847,"journal":13848,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":13849},"The disordering effect of SARMs on a biomembrane model.","Díaz-Salazar AJ, Espinosa-Roa A, Saldívar-Guerra E, Pérez-Isidoro R","Physical chemistry chemical physics : PCCP","10.1039/d4cp01002g",{"id":9599,"title":13851,"authors":13852,"journal":13853,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":13854},"PPARβ/δ upregulates the insulin receptor β subunit in skeletal muscle by reducing lysosomal activity and EphB4 levels.","Wang JR, Jurado-Aguilar J, Barroso E, Rodríguez-Calvo R, Camins A, Wahli W, Palomer X, Vázquez-Carrera M","Cell communication and signaling : CCS","10.1186/s12964-024-01972-5",{"id":593,"title":13856,"authors":13857,"journal":1962,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":13858},"PPARβ/δ attenuates hepatic fibrosis by reducing SMAD3 phosphorylation and p300 levels via AMPK in hepatic stellate cells.","Zhang M, Barroso E, Peña L, Rada P, Valverde ÁM, Wahli W, Palomer X, Vázquez-Carrera M","10.1016/j.biopha.2024.117303",{"id":12775,"title":13860,"authors":13861,"journal":3452,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":13862},"SARMs, Metabolic Modulators and Growth Hormone Secretagogues in Suspected Illegal Medicines, Bought as Sport Performance Enhancers: A Retro- and Prospective Study Within the GEON.","Barrios MM, Deconinck E, Vanhee C, Lamme EK, 't Hart-Bakker I, Syversen PV, Bøyum O, Li-Ship G, Young S, Blazewicz A, Poplawska M, Hakkarainen B, Huynh NH, Hackl A, Portela MJ, Martinho P, Beerbaum N, Gaudiano MC, Raimondo M, Marleau V, Cloutier J, Ollerenshaw J, Hansen A, Mills J, Aha M, Luchte C, Miquel M","10.1002/dta.3918",{"id":12779,"title":13864,"authors":13865,"journal":1145,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":13866},"PPARδ agonist enhances colitis-associated colorectal cancer.","Zhou D, Jin J, Liu Q, Shi J, Hou Y","10.1016/j.ejphar.2018.10.050",{"id":3724,"title":13868,"authors":13869,"journal":13870,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":13871},"Exercise Pills: At the Starting Line.","Li S, Laher I","Trends in pharmacological sciences","10.1016/j.tips.2015.08.014",{"id":3728,"title":13873,"authors":13874,"journal":11330,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":13875},"Antihypertensive effects of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-β/δ activation.","Toral M, Romero M, Pérez-Vizcaíno F, Duarte J, Jiménez R","10.1152/ajpheart.00155.2016",{"id":3731,"title":13877,"authors":13878,"journal":13879,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":13880},"A screening method for the quantitative determination of selective androgen receptor modulators (SARMs) in capsules by high resolution (19)F- and (1)H-NMR spectroscopy.","Maccelli A, Borioni A, Aureli F, Gaudiano MC, Manna L, Raimondo M","Analytical methods : advancing methods and applications","10.1039/d4ay00188e",{"id":11855,"title":13882,"authors":13883,"journal":1145,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":13884},"GW501516 facilitated tumor immune escape by inhibiting phagocytosis.","Qian J, Guo Y, Khan B, Shi J, Hou Y","10.1016/j.ejphar.2025.177418",{"id":11858,"title":13886,"authors":13887,"journal":13888,"year":229,"citationType":167,"doi":13889},"Endothelial progenitor cells and angiogenesis join the PPARty.","Biscetti F, Pola R","Circulation research","10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.108.180224",{"id":11861,"title":13891,"authors":13892,"journal":13893,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":13894},"Nuclear receptors and AMPK: can exercise mimetics cure diabetes?","Wall CE, Yu RT, Atkins AR, Downes M, Evans RM","Journal of molecular endocrinology","10.1530/JME-16-0073",{"id":9990,"title":13896,"authors":13897,"journal":1754,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":13898},"Selective PPARδ Agonist GW501516 Protects Against LPS-Induced Macrophage Inflammation and Acute Liver Failure in Mice via Suppressing Inflammatory Mediators.","Lim HJ, Kwak HJ","10.3390/molecules29215189",{"id":9992,"title":13900,"authors":13901,"journal":1990,"year":1122,"citationType":167,"doi":13902},"Angiopoietin-like 4 regulates epidermal differentiation.","Pal M, Tan MJ, Huang RL, Goh YY, Wang XL, Tang MB, Tan NS","10.1371/journal.pone.0025377",{"id":62,"title":13904,"authors":13905,"journal":3069,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":13906},"PPAR Agonists, Atherogenic Dyslipidemia and Cardiovascular Risk.","Nikolic D, Castellino G, Banach M, Toth PP, Ivanova E, Orekhov AN, Montalto G, Rizzo M","10.2174/1381612822666161006151134",{"id":65,"title":13908,"authors":13909,"journal":13910,"year":1152,"citationType":167,"doi":13911},"Peroxisome proliferator activated receptor-δ: the middle child vies for attention.","Rajagopal R, Semenkovich CF","Arteriosclerosis, thrombosis, and vascular biology","10.1161/ATVBAHA.113.302777",{"id":68,"title":13913,"authors":13914,"journal":13915,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":13916},"Mitochondrial dysfunction and consequences in calpain-3-deficient muscle.","Jahnke VE, Peterson JM, Van Der Meulen JH, Boehler J, Uaesoontrachoon K, Johnston HK, Defour A, Phadke A, Yu Q, Jaiswal JK, Nagaraju K","Skeletal muscle","10.1186/s13395-020-00254-1",{"id":71,"title":13918,"authors":13919,"journal":8276,"year":290,"citationType":167,"doi":13920},"Lipids, lipoproteins, and peroxisome proliferator activated receptor-delta.","Sprecher DL","10.1016/j.amjcard.2007.08.009",{"id":74,"title":13922,"authors":13923,"journal":822,"year":1196,"citationType":167,"doi":13924},"Roles of PPARs in NAFLD: potential therapeutic targets.","Tailleux A, Wouters K, Staels B","10.1016/j.bbalip.2011.10.016",{"id":77,"title":13926,"authors":13927,"journal":773,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":13928},"PPARβ/δ agonist GW501516 inhibits TNFα-induced repression of adiponectin and insulin receptor in 3T3-L1 adipocytes.","Kim WJ, Lee W, Jung Y, Jang HJ, Kim YK, Kim SN","10.1016/j.bbrc.2019.02.013",{"id":1239,"title":13705,"authors":13706,"journal":13707,"year":1152,"citationType":167},{"id":1242,"title":13931,"authors":13932,"journal":7022,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":13933},"Short-term administration of GW501516 improves inflammatory state in white adipose tissue and liver damage in high-fructose-fed mice through modulation of the renin-angiotensin system.","Magliano DC, Penna-de-Carvalho A, Vazquez-Carrera M, Mandarim-de-Lacerda CA, Aguila MB","10.1007/s12020-015-0590-1",{"id":1244,"title":13935,"authors":13936,"journal":1006,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":13937},"A metabolomic study of the PPARδ agonist GW501516 for enhancing running endurance in Kunming mice.","Chen W, Gao R, Xie X, Zheng Z, Li H, Li S, Dong F, Wang L","10.1038/srep09884",{"id":1247,"title":13939,"authors":13940,"journal":13941,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":13942},"Apoptotic effect of the selective PPARβ/δ agonist GW501516 in invasive bladder cancer cells.","Péchery A, Fauconnet S, Bittard H, Lascombe I","Tumour biology : the journal of the International Society for Oncodevelopmental Biology and Medicine","10.1007/s13277-016-5305-6",{"id":1250,"title":13944,"authors":13945,"journal":2041,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":13946},"GW501516-Mediated Targeting of Tetraspanin 15 Regulates ADAM10-Dependent N-Cadherin Cleavage in Invasive Bladder Cancer Cells.","Barbaud A, Lascombe I, Péchery A, Arslan S, Kleinclauss F, Fauconnet S","10.3390/cells13080708",{"id":1253,"title":13948,"authors":13949,"journal":516,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":13950},"PPARδ Agonist GW501516 Suppresses the TGF-β-Induced Profibrotic Response of Human Bronchial Fibroblasts from Asthmatic Patients.","Paw M, Wnuk D, Madeja Z, Michalik M","10.3390/ijms24097721",{"id":7134,"title":13952,"authors":13953,"journal":12313,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":13954},"PPARδ Modulation by GW501516: An Unsuccessful Exercise Mimetic.","Sanchis-Gomar F, Lippi G, Perez-Quilis C","10.1002/cpt.632",{"id":7136,"title":13956,"authors":13957,"journal":13958,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":13959},"PPARβ/δ Agonist GW501516 Inhibits Tumorigenesis and Promotes Apoptosis of the Undifferentiated Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma C666-1 Cells by Regulating miR-206.","Gu L, Shi Y, Xu W, Ji Y","Oncology research","10.3727/096504019X15518706875814",{"id":7138,"title":13961,"authors":13962,"journal":3189,"year":1122,"citationType":167,"doi":13963},"The PPARβ/δ activator GW501516 prevents the down-regulation of AMPK caused by a high-fat diet in liver and amplifies the PGC-1α-Lipin 1-PPARα pathway leading to increased fatty acid oxidation.","Barroso E, Rodríguez-Calvo R, Serrano-Marco L, Astudillo AM, Balsinde J, Palomer X, Vázquez-Carrera M","10.1210/en.2010-1468",{"id":7140,"title":13965,"authors":13869,"journal":12313,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":13966},"Response to \"PPARδ Modulation by GW501516: An Unsuccessful Exercise Mimetic\".","10.1002/cpt.673",{"id":7142,"title":13968,"authors":13969,"journal":2029,"year":1196,"citationType":167,"doi":13970},"PPARδ agonist GW501516 prevents uncoupling of endothelial nitric oxide synthase in cerebral microvessels of hph-1 mice.","Santhanam AV, d'Uscio LV, He T, Katusic ZS","10.1016/j.brainres.2012.09.012",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":5,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":13973},"2026-01-05T22:12:05.662484","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/cardarine.webp","453.50","C21H18F3NO3S2","9803963","24 hours","317318-70-0","CC1=C(C=CC(=C1)SCC2=C(N=C(S2)C3=CC=C(C=C3)C(F)(F)F)C)OCC(=O)O",[13982,13983,13984,13985],"GW501516","GW-501516","GSK-516","Endurobol",[13987,13988,13989,13990],"Endurance and exercise mimetics","Lipid metabolism / metabolic syndrome","PPARδ receptor pharmacology","Fatty acid oxidation",{"human":13992,"animal":13993,"inVitro":13994,"uncertain":13995},"One short-term randomized controlled trial in moderately obese men found that the PPARδ agonist GW501516 improved several metabolic parameters (reduced plasma triglycerides, improved markers of insulin resistance, increased fat oxidation) — but it was a small, short-duration study, not a clinical development program.","A landmark mouse study showed GW501516 increased running endurance substantially and, together with AMPK activators, was described as an 'exercise mimetic.' Long-term rodent toxicology reportedly showed increased tumor incidence in multiple organs, leading the developer to halt clinical development.","Cell-based assays characterize GW501516 as a potent, selective PPARδ agonist that drives expression of genes involved in fatty acid oxidation.","The tumor findings that ended development were widely reported but were not published as a full peer-reviewed toxicology paper; long-term human safety and efficacy are therefore unknown, and online 'cardarine' use rests on animal data plus community anecdote.",[13997,14000],{"finding":13998,"source":13738,"year":229,"link":13999,"evidenceLevel":50},"In mice, the PPARδ agonist GW501516 increased running endurance and reproduced several effects of endurance training, coining the term 'exercise mimetic.'","https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2008.06.051",{"finding":14001,"source":14002,"year":229,"link":14003,"evidenceLevel":46},"In a short-term randomized controlled trial in moderately obese men, PPARδ activation with GW501516 reversed multiple metabolic abnormalities, reduced oxidative stress, and increased fatty acid oxidation.","Randomized controlled trial (Diabetes)","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18024853/","Cardarine is not a peptide and is not FDA approved. Clinical data are limited to one short human trial; the program was discontinued after rodent carcinogenicity findings, and no long-term human outcome or safety data exist. Any dosing advice circulating online has no clinical support.","Oral small-molecule PPARδ (PPARβ/δ) agonist; GW501516 activates PPARδ nuclear-receptor signaling to upregulate fatty-acid-oxidation genes. Human pharmacokinetic data are limited to short-term study protocols; it is not a peptide and has no approved dose.",[14007,14010,14013],{"question":14008,"answer":14009},"Is cardarine a SARM?","No. Cardarine (GW501516) is a PPARδ receptor agonist, not an androgen-receptor modulator; it is often mislabeled in fitness communities.",{"question":14011,"answer":14012},"Why was GW501516 development stopped?","Long-term rodent studies reportedly found tumors in multiple organs; the developer discontinued clinical development and the compound was never approved for any indication.",{"question":14014,"answer":14015},"Is cardarine safe for humans?","That is unknown. Human data are limited to a short-term trial, and animal carcinogenicity signals mean long-term risk cannot be ruled out; it remains a research compound.",{"id":9546,"name":14017,"slug":14018,"description":14019,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":28,"views":2486,"shortDescription":14020,"peptideBenefits":14021,"benefits":14031,"peptideSideEffects":14035,"sideEffects":14045,"dosage":14049,"mechanism":14050,"safetyNote":14051,"athleteWarning":7487,"citations":14052,"research":14198,"statsCache":14199,"imageUrl":14201,"molecularWeight":14202,"molecularFormula":14203,"pubchemId":14204,"sequence":14205,"halfLife":14206,"administrationRoute":14207,"casNumber":14208,"totalMentions":5369,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"aliases":14209,"researchAreas":14215,"evidence":14220,"keyStudies":14225,"limitations":14234,"pharmacology":14235,"faqs":14236,"lastReviewed":359},"IGF-1 DES","igf-1-des","IGF-1 DES (Des(1-3)IGF-1) is a truncated form of insulin-like growth factor-1 lacking the first three N-terminal amino acids (glycine, proline, glutamate). This modification significantly alters the peptide's biological properties by dramatically reducing binding affinity to IGF binding proteins (IGFBPs). Since IGFBPs normally sequester and regulate IGF-1 activity, IGF-1 DES exhibits approximately 10-fold greater potency than native IGF-1 in stimulating cellular proliferation and protein synthesis. The truncated peptide acts primarily in an autocrine/paracrine fashion with rapid, potent local effects. Research demonstrates enhanced myogenic and mitogenic activity compared to standard IGF-1. IGF-1 DES has a very short half-life (20-30 minutes) due to rapid degradation, making it suitable for targeted local effects rather than systemic administration. The peptide is popular in research examining IGF-1 signaling and has been used experimentally for localized muscle growth applications. However, the enhanced potency also increases potential for adverse effects including hypoglycemia and must be used with appropriate caution.","Truncated IGF-1 variant for localized muscle growth",[14022,14025,14028],{"id":14023,"benefit":14024,"benefitCategory":7445,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},410,"Enhanced muscle differentiation",{"id":14026,"benefit":14027,"benefitCategory":7445,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},411,"Localized anabolic effects",{"id":14029,"benefit":14030,"benefitCategory":7445,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},412,"Minimal IGFBP binding",[14032,14033,14034],{"id":14023,"benefit":14024,"benefitCategory":7445,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":14026,"benefit":14027,"benefitCategory":7445,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":14029,"benefit":14030,"benefitCategory":7445,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},[14036,14039,14042],{"id":14037,"sideEffect":14038,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":5476,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":5477,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},245,"Hypoglycemia",{"id":14040,"sideEffect":14041,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},246,"Narrow therapeutic window",{"id":14043,"sideEffect":14044,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":15,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},247,"Cytotoxic at high doses",[14046,14047,14048],{"id":14037,"sideEffect":14038,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":5476,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":5477,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":14040,"sideEffect":14041,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":14043,"sideEffect":14044,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":15,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"low microgram ranges","Fast-acting IGF-1 for localized muscle hypertrophy effects","Research compound only. ANGIOGENESIS/CANCER CONCERN - Potential tumor promotion. WADA BANNED. NOT approved for human use.",[14053,14058,14063,14068,14073,14078,14083,14088,14093,14099,14104,14110,14115,14119,14123,14128,14132,14136,14140,14145,14150,14153,14157,14162,14167,14171,14176,14180,14184,14189,14193],{"id":14054,"title":14055,"authors":14056,"journal":3189,"year":750,"citationType":167,"doi":14057},894,"The effects of insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-1, IGF-2, and des-IGF-1 on neuronal loss after hypoxic-ischemic brain injury in adult rats: evidence for a role for IGF binding proteins.","Guan J, Williams CE, Skinner SJ, Mallard EC, Gluckman PD","10.1210/endo.137.3.8603600",{"id":14059,"title":14060,"authors":14061,"journal":4185,"year":229,"citationType":167,"doi":14062},895,"Enforced epithelial expression of IGF-1 causes hyperplastic prostate growth while negative selection is requisite for spontaneous metastogenesis.","Kaplan-Lefko PJ, Sutherland BW, Evangelou AI, Hadsell DL, Barrios RJ, Foster BA, Demayo F, Greenberg NM","10.1038/sj.onc.1210943",{"id":14064,"title":14065,"authors":14066,"journal":3142,"year":723,"citationType":167,"doi":14067},896,"IGF-I has a dual effect on insulin release from isolated, perifused adult rat islets of Langerhans.","Hill DJ, Sedran RJ, Brenner SL, McDonald TJ","10.1677/joe.0.1530015",{"id":14069,"title":14070,"authors":14071,"journal":742,"year":1372,"citationType":167,"doi":14072},897,"A key functional role for the insulin-like growth factor 1 N-terminal pentapeptide.","Bagley CJ, May BL, Szabo L, McNamara PJ, Ross M, Francis GL, Ballard FJ, Wallace JC","10.1042/bj2590665",{"id":14074,"title":14075,"authors":14076,"journal":3189,"year":1403,"citationType":167,"doi":14077},898,"The direct in vitro effect of insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) on normal bovine mammary cell proliferation and production of IGF binding proteins.","McGrath MF, Collier RJ, Clemmons DR, Busby WH, Sweeny CA, Krivi GG","10.1210/endo-129-2-671",{"id":14079,"title":14080,"authors":14081,"journal":14082,"year":1372,"citationType":167},899,"Effects of insulin-like growth factors on protein metabolism: why are some molecular variants more potent?","Ballard FJ, Francis GL, Bagley CJ, Szabo L, Wallace JC","Biochemical Society symposium",{"id":14084,"title":14085,"authors":14086,"journal":7914,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":14087},900,"Acromegaly: pathogenesis, diagnosis, and management.","Fleseriu M, Langlois F, Lim DST, Varlamov EV, Melmed S","10.1016/S2213-8587(22)00244-3",{"id":14089,"title":14090,"authors":14091,"journal":10263,"year":750,"citationType":167,"doi":14092},901,"Des(1-3)IGF-I: a truncated form of insulin-like growth factor-I.","Ballard FJ, Wallace JC, Francis GL, Read LC, Tomas FM","10.1016/1357-2725(96)00056-8",{"id":14094,"title":14095,"authors":14096,"journal":14097,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":14098},902,"Acromegaly.","Colao A, Grasso LFS, Giustina A, Melmed S, Chanson P, Pereira AM, Pivonello R","Nature reviews. Disease primers","10.1038/s41572-019-0071-6",{"id":14100,"title":14101,"authors":14102,"journal":3069,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":14103},903,"Effects of IGF-1 on the Cardiovascular System.","Obradovic M, Zafirovic S, Soskic S, Stanimirovic J, Trpkovic A, Jevremovic D, Isenovic ER","10.2174/1381612825666191106091507",{"id":14105,"title":14106,"authors":14107,"journal":14108,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":14109},904,"Effects of Exercise Training on Anabolic and Catabolic Hormones with Advanced Age: A Systematic Review.","Zouhal H, Jayavel A, Parasuraman K, Hayes LD, Tourny C, Rhibi F, Laher I, Abderrahman AB, Hackney AC","Sports medicine (Auckland, N.Z.)","10.1007/s40279-021-01612-9",{"id":14111,"title":14112,"authors":14113,"journal":3069,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":14114},905,"IGF-1 as a Drug for Preterm Infants: A Step-Wise Clinical Development.","Hellstrom A, Ley D, Hallberg B, Lofqvist C, Hansen-Pupp I, Ramenghi LA, Borg J, Smith LEH, Hard AL","10.2174/1381612823666171002114545",{"id":6047,"title":14116,"authors":14117,"journal":3115,"year":173,"citationType":167,"doi":14118},"Age-related differences in the des IGF-I-mediated activation of Akt-1 and p70 S6K in mouse skeletal muscle.","Li M, Li C, Parkhouse WS","10.1016/s0047-6374(03)00124-6",{"id":6050,"title":14120,"authors":14121,"journal":3452,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":14122},"Detection of LongR(3) -IGF-I, Des(1-3)-IGF-I, and R(3) -IGF-I using immunopurification and high resolution mass spectrometry for antidoping purposes.","Mongongu C, Coudoré F, Domergue V, Ericsson M, Buisson C, Marchand A","10.1002/dta.3016",{"id":6053,"title":14124,"authors":14125,"journal":14126,"year":1152,"citationType":167,"doi":14127},"Insulin, IGF-1 and GLP-1 signaling in neurodegenerative disorders: targets for disease modification?","Bassil F, Fernagut PO, Bezard E, Meissner WG","Progress in neurobiology","10.1016/j.pneurobio.2014.02.005",{"id":6056,"title":14129,"authors":14130,"journal":6546,"year":1403,"citationType":167,"doi":14131},"IGF-I and the truncated analogue des-(1-3)IGF-I enhance growth in rats after gut resection.","Lemmey AB, Martin AA, Read LC, Tomas FM, Owens PC, Ballard FJ","10.1152/ajpendo.1991.260.2.E213",{"id":6059,"title":14133,"authors":14134,"journal":6546,"year":1403,"citationType":167,"doi":14135},"IGF-I and its variant, des-(1-3)IGF-I, enhance growth in rats with reduced renal mass.","Martin AA, Tomas FM, Owens PC, Knowles SE, Ballard FJ, Read LC","10.1152/ajprenal.1991.261.4.F626",{"id":6062,"title":14137,"authors":14138,"journal":3069,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":14139},"Regulation of Na+/K+-ATPase by Estradiol and IGF-1 in Cardio-Metabolic Diseases.","Obradovic M, Stanimirovic J, Panic A, Bogdanovic N, Sudar-Milovanovic E, Cenic-Milosevic D, Isenovic ER","10.2174/1381612823666170203113455",{"id":6065,"title":14141,"authors":14142,"journal":14143,"year":710,"citationType":167,"doi":14144},"Des (1-3) IGF-I potently enhances differentiated cell growth in olfactory bulb organ culture.","Russo VC, Werther GA","Growth factors (Chur, Switzerland)","10.3109/08977199409011003",{"id":6152,"title":14146,"authors":14147,"journal":14148,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":14149},"Sleep and the GH/IGF-1 axis: Consequences and countermeasures of sleep loss/disorders.","Chennaoui M, Léger D, Gomez-Merino D","Sleep medicine reviews","10.1016/j.smrv.2019.101223",{"id":6155,"title":14151,"authors":14117,"journal":1551,"year":166,"citationType":167,"doi":14152},"Differential effects of des IGF-1 on Erks, AKT-1 and P70 S6K activation in mouse skeletal and cardiac muscle.","10.1023/a:1016164601887",{"id":6158,"title":14154,"authors":14155,"journal":3189,"year":723,"citationType":167,"doi":14156},"Insulin-like growth factor (IGF) binding protein-3 interacts with the type 1 IGF receptor, reducing the affinity of the receptor for its ligand: an alternative mechanism in the regulation of IGF action.","Mohseni-Zadeh S, Binoux M","10.1210/endo.138.12.5714",{"id":6161,"title":14158,"authors":14159,"journal":14160,"year":920,"citationType":167,"doi":14161},"des-(1-3)-IGF-I, an insulin-like growth factor analog used to mimic a potential IGF-II autocrine loop, promotes the differentiation of human colon-carcinoma cells.","Remacle-Bonnet M, Garrouste F, el Atiq F, Roccabianca M, Marvaldi J, Pommier G","International journal of cancer","10.1002/ijc.2910520614",{"id":6164,"title":14163,"authors":14164,"journal":14165,"year":243,"citationType":167,"doi":14166},"Functional characterization of des-IGF-1 action at excitatory synapses in the CA1 region of rat hippocampus.","Ramsey MM, Adams MM, Ariwodola OJ, Sonntag WE, Weiner JL","Journal of neurophysiology","10.1152/jn.00768.2004",{"id":9101,"title":14168,"authors":14169,"journal":742,"year":1372,"citationType":167,"doi":14170},"Insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-binding proteins inhibit the biological activities of IGF-1 and IGF-2 but not des-(1-3)-IGF-1.","Ross M, Francis GL, Szabo L, Wallace JC, Ballard FJ","10.1042/bj2580267",{"id":9104,"title":14172,"authors":14173,"journal":14174,"year":173,"citationType":167,"doi":14175},"Des(1-3)IGF-1 treatment normalizes type 1 IGF receptor and phospho-Akt (Thr 308) immunoreactivity in predegenerative retina of diabetic rats.","Kummer A, Pulford BE, Ishii DN, Seigel GM","International journal of experimental diabesity research","10.1080/15438600303729",{"id":9107,"title":14177,"authors":14178,"journal":3189,"year":723,"citationType":167,"doi":14179},"The growth hormone dependent serine protease inhibitor, Spi 2.1 inhibits the des (1-3) insulin-like growth factor-I generating protease.","Maake C, Yamamoto H, Murphy LJ","10.1210/endo.138.12.5711",{"id":9110,"title":14181,"authors":14182,"journal":3142,"year":849,"citationType":167,"doi":14183},"Enhanced potency of truncated insulin-like growth factor-I (des(1-3)IGF-I) relative to IGF-I in lit/lit mice.","Gillespie C, Read LC, Bagley CJ, Ballard FJ","10.1677/joe.0.1270401",{"id":9113,"title":14185,"authors":14186,"journal":14187,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":14188},"National acromegaly registries.","Maione L, Chanson P","Best practice & research. Clinical endocrinology & metabolism","10.1016/j.beem.2019.02.001",{"id":9116,"title":14190,"authors":14191,"journal":3142,"year":1403,"citationType":167,"doi":14192},"Plasma clearance and tissue distribution of labelled insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I), IGF-II and des(1-3)IGF-I in rats.","Ballard FJ, Knowles SE, Walton PE, Edson K, Owens PC, Mohler MA, Ferraiolo BL","10.1677/joe.0.1280197",{"id":14194,"title":14195,"authors":14196,"journal":11546,"year":1396,"citationType":167,"doi":14197},924,"Insulin-like growth factor binding protein-1 from Hep G2 cells is potently inhibited by the truncated IGF-I analogue des-(1-3) IGF-I.","Lindgren BF, Isaksson M, Stern I, Hall K","10.1530/acta.0.1280081",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":5369,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":14200},"2026-01-05T22:12:01.717712","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/igf-1-des.webp","7.6","~7.4 kDa (67 AA)","448537","MGKISSLPTQLFKCCFCDFLKVKMHTMSSSHLFYLALCLLTFTSSATAGPETLCGAELVDALQFVCGDRGFYFNKPTGYGSSSRRAPQTGIVDECCFRSCDLRRLEMYCAPLKPAKSARSVRAQRHTDMPKTQKYQPPSTNKNTKSQRRKGWPKTHPGGEQKEGTEASLQIRGKKKEQRREIGSRNAECRGKKGK","20-30 minutes","SC (localized)","56-53-1",[14210,14211,14212,14213,14214],"Des(1-3)IGF-1","Des(1-3)IGF-I","Destripeptide IGF-1","Truncated IGF-1","tIGF-1",[14216,14217,14218,14219],"IGF-1 receptor signaling","Myoblast proliferation and myogenesis","Muscle cell culture models","Growth factor potency studies",{"human":14221,"animal":14222,"inVitro":14223,"uncertain":14224},"No human clinical trials of IGF-1 DES were identified; it is not an approved medicine.","Published animal efficacy studies specifically on des(1-3)IGF-1 were not identified in this review; available evidence is primarily from cell-culture systems.","Cell-based studies established that removing the N-terminal tripeptide markedly reduces IGF-1's affinity for IGF-binding proteins, leaving more free ligand available to the IGF-1 receptor and making the peptide more potent in proliferation assays; des(1-3)IGF-I was also studied in cultured porcine embryonic muscle cells.","Claims of superior muscle-building potency and a very short half-life circulate widely in the peptide community but lack published human pharmacokinetic or clinical data.",[14226,14230],{"finding":14227,"source":14228,"year":1372,"link":14229,"evidenceLevel":343},"Research on the N-terminal region of IGF-1 established a key functional role for the first amino acids: the truncated derivative des(1-3)IGF-1 binds IGF-binding proteins far less avidly, increasing receptor availability and potency in cell assays.","In-vitro study (Biochemical Journal)","https://doi.org/10.1042/bj2590665",{"finding":14231,"source":14232,"year":736,"link":14233,"evidenceLevel":343},"In cultured porcine embryonic muscle cells, IGF-I and des(1-3)IGF-I differentially regulated IGF-binding protein-3, illustrating the truncated peptide's altered binding-protein interactions in muscle-relevant cells.","In-vitro study (Journal of Cellular Physiology)","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10048587/","All solid evidence is in-vitro (cell culture). No human or robust animal trials of IGF-1 DES exist; common claims about localized muscle growth, dosing, and a 20-30 minute half-life are not backed by published clinical or pharmacokinetic studies.","IGF-1 DES is des(1-3)IGF-1, an IGF-1 variant lacking the first three N-terminal amino acids; in cell studies its reduced IGFBP binding increases receptor availability. No approved human use, dose, or characterized human pharmacokinetics were found.",[14237,14240,14243],{"question":14238,"answer":14239},"What makes IGF-1 DES different from regular IGF-1?","It lacks the first three N-terminal amino acids, which in cell studies greatly reduces its binding to IGF-binding proteins, increasing free ligand for the IGF-1 receptor.",{"question":14241,"answer":14242},"Is IGF-1 DES approved for human use?","No. It is an unapproved research peptide with no human clinical trials.",{"question":14244,"answer":14245},"Does IGF-1 DES have a short half-life?","Short half-life claims circulate widely but were not confirmed in published human pharmacokinetic studies found in this review.",{"id":6873,"name":14247,"slug":14248,"description":14249,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":28,"views":2486,"shortDescription":14250,"researchStatus":14251,"peptideBenefits":14252,"benefits":14256,"peptideSideEffects":14259,"sideEffects":14279,"dosage":14288,"mechanism":14289,"safetyNote":14290,"athleteWarning":14291,"chemicalMakeup":14292,"citations":14293,"research":14426,"statsCache":14427,"imageUrl":14429,"molecularWeight":14430,"sequence":14205,"halfLife":14431,"administrationRoute":540,"totalMentions":5134,"dataCompleteness":1916,"hasResearchData":28,"protocols":14432,"aliases":14451,"researchAreas":14456,"evidence":14459,"keyStudies":14463,"limitations":14464,"pharmacology":14465,"faqs":14466,"lastReviewed":359},"IGF-1 LR3","igf-1-lr3","IGF-1 LR3 (Long R3 IGF-1) is a modified form of insulin-like growth factor-1 with significantly enhanced biological activity and extended half-life compared to native IGF-1. The modification includes an arginine substitution at position 3 and a 13-amino acid N-terminal extension peptide. These changes dramatically reduce binding to IGF binding proteins (IGFBPs), which normally sequester and inactivate circulating IGF-1. Research demonstrates IGF-1 LR3 has approximately three times the potency of native IGF-1 and a half-life of 20-30 hours compared to 12-15 hours for unmodified IGF-1. The peptide stimulates protein synthesis, promotes muscle hypertrophy, enhances nutrient partitioning toward muscle, and exhibits potent anabolic effects. Studies show IGF-1 LR3 can act systemically when administered, unlike locally-acting forms. The extended activity and enhanced potency make it popular in research settings examining IGF-1 biology and potential therapeutic applications for muscle wasting and growth deficiencies. However, increased potency also raises concerns about potential adverse effects including hypoglycemia.","Long-acting IGF-1 analog for sustained anabolic effects","Research Only",[14253,14254],{"id":1003,"benefit":10212,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":1009,"benefit":14255,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Recovery",[14257,14258],{"id":1003,"benefit":10212,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":1009,"benefit":14255,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},[14260,14265,14268,14271,14273,14274,14275,14277],{"id":3777,"sideEffect":7466,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":14261,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":14262,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":14263,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":6446,"management":14264,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},"Very common (~42%)","accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2019/021839s021lbl.pdf","IGF-1 (Mecasermin)","Meal with each dose; glucose monitoring",{"id":3782,"sideEffect":7472,"description":23,"severity":1669,"frequency":5476,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":14266,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":14263,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":8149,"management":14267,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},"dailymed.nlm.nih.gov","Monitor breathing; ENT evaluation",{"id":3788,"sideEffect":7466,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":105,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":14269,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":14263,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":8149,"management":14270,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"drugs.com/increlex.html","Fundoscopic exam; discontinue if confirmed",{"id":48,"sideEffect":398,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":5476,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":14266,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":14263,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":14272,"management":1884,"doseDependent":15,"needsReview":15},"Gradual",{"id":6362,"sideEffect":14038,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":1839,"sideEffect":10007,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":12720,"sideEffect":14276,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Tissue swelling",{"id":9518,"sideEffect":14278,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Rare abnormal growth",[14280,14281,14282,14283,14284,14285,14286,14287],{"id":3777,"sideEffect":7466,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":14261,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":14262,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":14263,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":6446,"management":14264,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},{"id":3782,"sideEffect":7472,"description":23,"severity":1669,"frequency":5476,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":14266,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":14263,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":8149,"management":14267,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},{"id":3788,"sideEffect":7466,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":105,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":14269,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":14263,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":8149,"management":14270,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":48,"sideEffect":398,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":5476,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":14266,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":14263,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":14272,"management":1884,"doseDependent":15,"needsReview":15},{"id":6362,"sideEffect":14038,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":1839,"sideEffect":10007,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":12720,"sideEffect":14276,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":9518,"sideEffect":14278,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"20-100 mcg Daily","Long-acting IGF-1 variant for sustained muscle growth and recovery","Research compound only. Not approved for human use. May cause hypoglycemia, joint pain, and potential organ enlargement with excessive use.","WADA BANNED - Prohibited in competitive sports as growth factor","83-amino-acid polypeptide, IGF-1 with Arg³ substitution and 13-aa extension at N-terminus",[14294,14299,14304,14309,14314,14318,14322,14327,14332,14337,14342,14348,14353,14358,14363,14369,14374,14379,14384,14389,14394,14399,14404,14410,14415,14420],{"id":3660,"title":14295,"authors":155,"journal":14296,"year":157,"citationType":158,"doi":14297,"researchPaperId":14298},"IGF-1 LR3: Extended Half-life IGF-1 Analog","Growth Hormone & IGF Research","10.1016/j.ghir.2025.101638","pubmed_40892145",{"id":14300,"title":14301,"authors":14302,"journal":7190,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":14303},925,"IGF-1 LR3 does not promote growth in late-gestation growth-restricted fetal sheep.","White A, Stremming J, Wesolowski SR, Al-Juboori SI, Dobrinskikh E, Limesand SW, Brown LD, Rozance PJ","10.1152/ajpendo.00259.2024",{"id":14305,"title":14306,"authors":14307,"journal":9864,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":14308},926,"Recombinant expression of IGF-1 and LR3 IGF-1 fused with xylanase in Pichia pastoris.","Lu Z, Liu N, Huang H, Wang Y, Tu T, Qin X, Wang X, Zhang J, Su X, Tian J, Bai Y, Luo H, Yao B, Zhang H","10.1007/s00253-023-12606-0",{"id":9214,"title":14310,"authors":14311,"journal":14312,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":14313},"Attenuated glucose-stimulated insulin secretion during an acute IGF-1 LR3 infusion into fetal sheep does not persist in isolated islets.","White A, Stremming J, Brown LD, Rozance PJ","Journal of developmental origins of health and disease","10.1017/S2040174423000090",{"id":9217,"title":14315,"authors":14316,"journal":11029,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":14317},"Coronary vascular growth matches IGF-1-stimulated cardiac growth in fetal sheep.","Jonker SS, Giraud GD, Chang EI, Elman MR, Louey S","10.1096/fj.202000215R",{"id":9220,"title":14319,"authors":14320,"journal":7190,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":14321},"IGF-1 infusion to fetal sheep increases organ growth but not by stimulating nutrient transfer to the fetus.","Stremming J, Heard S, White A, Chang EI, Shaw SC, Wesolowski SR, Jonker SS, Rozance PJ, Brown LD","10.1152/ajpendo.00453.2020",{"id":9223,"title":14323,"authors":14324,"journal":14325,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":14326},"Revolutionary decellularized Alstroemeria stem-based nerve conduit integrated with GelMA and controlled IGF-1 LR3 release for enhanced rat sciatic nerve regeneration.","Yavuz E, Sağır MS, Ercan A, Erginer M, Barlas FB, Sakarya D, Kılıç Ş, Ölçeroğlu B, Yardibi H, Kalaycılar İB, Demiröz A","International journal of biological macromolecules","10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2025.147888",{"id":14328,"title":14329,"authors":14330,"journal":7190,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":14331},931,"Reduced glucose-stimulated insulin secretion following a 1-wk IGF-1 infusion in late gestation fetal sheep is due to an intrinsic islet defect.","White A, Stremming J, Boehmer BH, Chang EI, Jonker SS, Wesolowski SR, Brown LD, Rozance PJ","10.1152/ajpendo.00623.2020",{"id":14333,"title":14334,"authors":14335,"journal":1121,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":14336},932,"Intranasal long R3 insulin-like growth factor-1 treatment promotes amyloid plaque remodeling in cerebral cortex but fails to preserve cognitive function in male 5XFAD mice.","Engel MG, Narayan S, Cui MH, Branch CA, Zhang X, Gandy SE, Ehrlich M, Huffman DM","10.1177/13872877241299056",{"id":14338,"title":14339,"authors":14340,"journal":516,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":14341},933,"N-Linked Glycosylation in Chinese Hamster Ovary Cells Is Critical for Insulin-like Growth Factor 1 Signaling.","Salvi R, Kumar C, Brahmbhatt K, Subedi R, Idicula-Thomas S, Madan T, Biswas B","10.3390/ijms232314952",{"id":14343,"title":14344,"authors":14345,"journal":14346,"year":173,"citationType":167,"doi":14347},934,"Extracellular signal-regulated kinase and phosphoinositol-3 kinase mediate IGF-1 induced proliferation of fetal sheep cardiomyocytes.","Sundgren NC, Giraud GD, Schultz JM, Lasarev MR, Stork PJ, Thornburg KL","American journal of physiology. Regulatory, integrative and comparative physiology","10.1152/ajpregu.00232.2003",{"id":14349,"title":14350,"authors":14351,"journal":7201,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":14352},935,"Sheep recombinant IGF-1 promotes organ-specific growth in fetal sheep.","Stremming J, White A, Donthi A, Batt DG, Hetrick B, Chang EI, Wesolowski SR, Seefeldt MB, McCurdy CE, Rozance PJ, Brown LD","10.3389/fphys.2022.954948",{"id":14354,"title":14355,"authors":14356,"journal":12175,"year":1196,"citationType":167,"doi":14357},936,"Na+ transport across rumen epithelium of hay-fed sheep is acutely stimulated by the peptide IGF-1 in vitro.","Shen Z, Martens H, Schweigel-Röntgen M","10.1113/expphysiol.2011.061580",{"id":14359,"title":14360,"authors":14361,"journal":1006,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":14362},937,"Inhibition of activin-like kinase 4/5 attenuates cancer cachexia associated muscle wasting.","Levolger S, Wiemer EAC, van Vugt JLA, Huisman SA, van Vledder MG, van Damme-van Engel S, Ambagtsheer G, IJzermans JNM, de Bruin RWF","10.1038/s41598-019-46178-9",{"id":14364,"title":14365,"authors":14366,"journal":14367,"year":203,"citationType":167,"doi":14368},938,"Physicochemical characteristics of LR3-IGF1 protein inclusion bodies: electrophoretic mobility studies.","Wangsa-Wirawan ND, O'Neill BK, Middelberg AP","Biotechnology progress","10.1021/bp010058x",{"id":14370,"title":14371,"authors":14372,"journal":10731,"year":736,"citationType":167,"doi":14373},939,"The role of insulin-like growth factors in small intestinal cell growth and development.","MacDonald RS","10.1055/s-2007-978706",{"id":14375,"title":14376,"authors":14377,"journal":3189,"year":203,"citationType":167,"doi":14378},940,"Insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) and long R(3)IGF-I differently affect development and messenger ribonucleic acid abundance for IGF-binding proteins and type I IGF receptors in in vitro produced bovine embryos.","Prelle K, Stojkovic M, Boxhammer K, Motlik J, Ewald D, Arnold GJ, Wolf E","10.1210/endo.142.3.8038",{"id":14380,"title":14381,"authors":14382,"journal":10652,"year":1152,"citationType":167,"doi":14383},941,"Epidermal growth factor receptor is required for estradiol-stimulated bovine satellite cell proliferation.","Reiter BC, Kamanga-Sollo E, Pampusch MS, White ME, Dayton WR","10.1016/j.domaniend.2014.01.001",{"id":14385,"title":14386,"authors":14387,"journal":742,"year":710,"citationType":167,"doi":14388},942,"Effects of insulin and insulin-like growth factors on protein and energy metabolism in tumour-bearing rats.","Tomas FM, Chandler CS, Coyle P, Bourgeois CS, Burgoyne JL, Rofe AM","10.1042/bj3010769",{"id":14390,"title":14391,"authors":14392,"journal":10364,"year":290,"citationType":167,"doi":14393},943,"Effects of IGF-I bioavailability on bovine preantral follicular development in vitro.","Thomas FH, Campbell BK, Armstrong DG, Telfer EE","10.1530/REP-06-0382",{"id":14395,"title":14396,"authors":14397,"journal":3142,"year":750,"citationType":167,"doi":14398},944,"The role of IGFBP-3 in the regulation of IGFBP-4 proteolysis.","Donnelly MJ, Holly JM","10.1677/joe.0.149r001",{"id":14400,"title":14401,"authors":14402,"journal":742,"year":1396,"citationType":167,"doi":14403},945,"Insulin-like growth factor-I and more potent variants restore growth of diabetic rats without inducing all characteristic insulin effects.","Tomas FM, Knowles SE, Owens PC, Chandler CS, Francis GL, Ballard FJ","10.1042/bj2910781",{"id":14405,"title":14406,"authors":14407,"journal":14408,"year":203,"citationType":167,"doi":14409},946,"Interactions between follicle-stimulating hormone and growth factors in modulating secretion of steroids and inhibin-related peptides by nonluteinized bovine granulosa cells.","Glister C, Tannetta DS, Groome NP, Knight PG","Biology of reproduction","10.1095/biolreprod65.4.1020",{"id":14411,"title":14412,"authors":14413,"journal":3189,"year":243,"citationType":167,"doi":14414},947,"The local expression and abundance of insulin-like growth factor (IGF) binding proteins in skeletal muscle are regulated by age and gender but not local IGF-I in vivo.","Oliver WT, Rosenberger J, Lopez R, Gomez A, Cummings KK, Fiorotto ML","10.1210/en.2005-0714",{"id":14416,"title":14417,"authors":14418,"journal":14408,"year":723,"citationType":167,"doi":14419},948,"Interactions between follicle-stimulating hormone and growth factors in regulation of deoxyribonucleic acid synthesis in bovine granulosa cells.","Khamsi F, Armstrong DT","10.1095/biolreprod57.3.684",{"id":14421,"title":14422,"authors":14423,"journal":14424,"year":203,"citationType":167,"doi":14425},949,"The effect of insulin-like growth factor analogs on turkey satellite cell and embryonic myoblast proliferation.","Pesall JE, McFarland DC, McMurtry JP, Clapper JA, Francis GL, Gilkerson KK","Poultry science","10.1093/ps/80.7.944",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":5134,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":14428},"2026-01-05T22:12:17.577020","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/igf-1-lr3.webp","9.7","20-30 hours",[14433,14437,14442,14447],{"name":14434,"dose":14435,"frequency":14436,"route":5382},"Research Beginner Protocol","20-30mcg","Once daily, post-workout",{"name":14438,"dose":14439,"frequency":14440,"route":14441},"Intermediate Research Use","40-60mcg","Once daily, post-workout or morning","Subcutaneous or intramuscular",{"name":14443,"dose":14444,"frequency":14445,"route":14446},"Advanced Research Protocol","80-100mcg","Once daily or split AM/PM","Subcutaneous or site-specific IM",{"name":14448,"dose":14449,"frequency":1801,"route":14450},"Women's Research Protocol","10-20mcg","Subcutaneous only",[14247,14452,14453,14454,14455],"Long R3 IGF-1","LongR3-IGF-I","LR3 IGF-1","Long R3 insulin-like growth factor-1",[14457,14216,14458],"Muscle protein synthesis / hypertrophy (research)","Anabolic research compounds",{"human":23,"animal":14460,"inVitro":14461,"uncertain":14462},"In animal models the LR3 analog shows greater anabolic potency and longer duration of action than native IGF-1, attributed to reduced binding to IGF-binding proteins (IGFBPs).","Cell-culture studies show Long R3 IGF-1 retains high-affinity IGF-1 receptor activation with markedly reduced IGFBP binding, giving greater effective potency (reported ~3x) and prolonged activity versus native IGF-1.","Claims of muscle growth, fat loss, and performance benefits in humans are anecdotal; there are no controlled human studies of the LR3 analog.",[],"No indexed clinical trials, pharmacokinetic, or safety data exist for IGF-1 LR3 in humans; information derives from in-vitro characterization and animal studies of IGF-1 analogs, plus extrapolation from native IGF-1. IGF-1 signaling is associated with hypoglycemia risk and theoretical cancer-growth concerns, and dosing used by consumers is unvalidated.","Recombinant analog of human IGF-1 engineered (arginine at position 3 plus a 13-amino-acid N-terminal extension) to reduce IGFBP binding, prolonging activity and increasing potency in vitro/animal studies. No approved dosing or route; administered by injection in research settings.",[14467,14470],{"question":14468,"answer":14469},"Is IGF-1 LR3 approved for use in people?","No. It is a research-grade analog with no regulatory approval. Only native recombinant IGF-1 (mecasermin) is FDA-approved, for severe growth failure.",{"question":14471,"answer":14472},"Does IGF-1 LR3 build muscle in humans?","There are no controlled human studies. Muscle-building claims are based on in-vitro potency and animal data, plus anecdotal reports.",{"id":365,"name":14474,"slug":14475,"description":14476,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":28,"views":2222,"shortDescription":14477,"researchStatus":14478,"peptideBenefits":14479,"benefits":14491,"peptideSideEffects":14498,"sideEffects":14504,"dosage":14508,"mechanism":14509,"safetyNote":148,"athleteWarning":14291,"chemicalMakeup":14510,"citations":14511,"research":14793,"statsCache":14794,"imageUrl":14796,"molecularWeight":14797,"molecularFormula":14798,"pubchemId":14799,"sequence":14205,"halfLife":14800,"administrationRoute":14801,"smiles":14802,"totalMentions":8,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"aliases":14803,"researchAreas":14808,"evidence":14813,"keyStudies":14818,"limitations":14823,"pharmacology":14824,"faqs":14825,"lastReviewed":359},"MGF (Mechano Growth Factor)","mgf","MGF (Mechano Growth Factor) is a splice variant of insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) produced locally in skeletal muscle in response to mechanical stress, damage, or exercise. The MGF E-peptide domain differs from systemic IGF-1Ea, giving it unique local autocrine/paracrine functions. Research demonstrates MGF specifically activates muscle satellite cells—the resident stem cells responsible for muscle fiber repair and growth—initiating their proliferation before they differentiate into mature myocytes. This sequential process is critical for effective muscle regeneration. Studies show MGF expression peaks shortly after exercise or injury, preceding IGF-1Ea upregulation. The peptide may enhance muscle hypertrophy, accelerate recovery from exercise, and support tissue repair. PEG-MGF is a pegylated variant with extended half-life allowing systemic effects. Research continues into applications for sarcopenia, muscle wasting diseases, and injury recovery. MGF represents the local muscle tissue's immediate response to mechanical signals, distinct from liver-derived circulating IGF-1.","Mechano growth factor for muscle tissue repair after exercise","Research compound - IGF-1 splice variant",[14480,14482,14483,14485,14487,14489],{"id":3524,"benefit":14481,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Muscle growth and repair",{"id":3529,"benefit":9952,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":2339,"benefit":14484,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Satellite cell activation",{"id":2344,"benefit":14486,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Improved muscle fiber regeneration",{"id":2342,"benefit":14488,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Post-workout recovery",{"id":2618,"benefit":14490,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Strength gains",[14492,14493,14494,14495,14496,14497],{"id":3524,"benefit":14481,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3529,"benefit":9952,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":2339,"benefit":14484,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":2344,"benefit":14486,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":2342,"benefit":14488,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":2618,"benefit":14490,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},[14499,14501,14503],{"id":13600,"sideEffect":14500,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Local pain",{"id":13606,"sideEffect":14502,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Hypoglycemia-like symptoms",{"id":13611,"sideEffect":12793,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},[14505,14506,14507],{"id":13600,"sideEffect":14500,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":13606,"sideEffect":14502,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":13611,"sideEffect":12793,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"200mcg post-workout","Muscle-specific IGF-1 variant for localized muscle repair and growth","Splice variant of IGF-1 gene, 24-amino-acid unique E-domain peptide",[14512,14517,14521,14527,14533,14539,14545,14550,14555,14561,14566,14572,14577,14583,14589,14594,14599,14604,14609,14614,14620,14626,14631,14636,14641,14647,14652,14658,14663,14668,14674,14679,14684,14689,14695,14701,14707,14713,14718,14724,14730,14735,14741,14747,14752,14757,14763,14768,14773,14778,14783,14788],{"id":5052,"title":14513,"authors":155,"journal":14514,"year":437,"citationType":430,"doi":14515,"researchPaperId":14516},"MGF Peptide for Muscle Regeneration: Nanoformulation Approaches","ACS Nano","10.1021/acsnano.2c04591","pubmed_36053268",{"id":8984,"title":14518,"authors":155,"journal":2041,"year":437,"citationType":158,"doi":14519,"researchPaperId":14520},"Mechano Growth Factor in Skeletal Muscle Repair","10.3390/cells11162500","pubmed_36010575",{"id":14522,"title":14523,"authors":14524,"journal":14525,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":14526},1182,"The African swine fever virus gene MGF_360-4L inhibits interferon signaling by recruiting mitochondrial selective autophagy receptor SQSTM1 degrading MDA5 antagonizing innate immune responses.","Sun H, Yang J, Zhang Z, Wu M, Tian Z, Liu Y, Zhang X, Zhong J, Yang S, Chen Y, Luo J, Guan G, Yin H, Niu Q","mBio","10.1128/mbio.02677-24",{"id":14528,"title":14529,"authors":14530,"journal":14531,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":14532},1183,"MgF(2):Mn(2+): novel material with mechanically-induced luminescence.","Ning J, Zheng Y, Ren Y, Li L, Shi X, Peng D, Yang Y","Science bulletin","10.1016/j.scib.2021.12.005",{"id":14534,"title":14535,"authors":14536,"journal":14537,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":14538},1184,"Mechanochemical coupling of MGF mediates periodontal regeneration.","Zhao Y, Zhang S, Cheng B, Feng F, Zhu Y, Liu Y, Wang J, Zou D, Ma H, Xu F, Zhang M","Bioengineering & translational medicine","10.1002/btm2.10603",{"id":14540,"title":14541,"authors":14542,"journal":14543,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":14544},1185,"MGF-net: Multi-channel group fusion enhancing boundary attention for polyp segmentation.","Huang Z, Xie F, Qing W, Wang M, Liu M, Sun D","Medical physics","10.1002/mp.16584",{"id":14546,"title":14547,"authors":14548,"journal":1331,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":14549},1186,"African Swine Fever Virus MGF-505-7R Negatively Regulates cGAS-STING-Mediated Signaling Pathway.","Li D, Yang W, Li L, Li P, Ma Z, Zhang J, Qi X, Ren J, Ru Y, Niu Q, Liu Z, Liu X, Zheng H","10.4049/jimmunol.2001110",{"id":14551,"title":14552,"authors":14553,"journal":10263,"year":3074,"citationType":167,"doi":14554},1187,"Impairment of IGF-I gene splicing and MGF expression associated with muscle wasting.","Goldspink G","10.1016/j.biocel.2005.10.001",{"id":14556,"title":14557,"authors":14558,"journal":14559,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":14560},1188,"Involvement of the MGF 110-11L Gene in the African Swine Fever Replication and Virulence.","Tamás V, Righi C, Mészáros I, D'Errico F, Olasz F, Casciari C, Zádori Z, Magyar T, Petrini S, Feliziani F","Vaccines","10.3390/vaccines11040846",{"id":14562,"title":14563,"authors":14564,"journal":10287,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":14565},1189,"MGF-19E peptide promoted proliferation, differentiation and mineralization of MC3T3-E1 cell and promoted bone defect healing.","Wei W, Liu S, Song J, Feng T, Yang R, Cheng Y, Li H, Hao L","10.1016/j.gene.2020.144703",{"id":14567,"title":14568,"authors":14569,"journal":14570,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":14571},1190,"An amorphous MgF(2) anti-reflective thin film for enhanced performance of inverted organic-inorganic perovskite solar cells.","Li W, Cao W, Zhou H, Zhang X, Wang K","RSC advances","10.1039/d3ra08456f",{"id":14573,"title":14574,"authors":14575,"journal":3806,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":14576},1191,"MGF enhances tenocyte invasion through MMP-2 activity via the FAK-ERK1/2 pathway.","Zhang B, Luo Q, Sun J, Xu B, Ju Y, Yang L, Song G","10.1111/wrr.12293",{"id":14578,"title":14579,"authors":14580,"journal":14581,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":14582},1192,"MGF E peptide improves anterior cruciate ligament repair by inhibiting hypoxia-induced cell apoptosis and accelerating angiogenesis.","Sha Y, Yang L, Lv Y","Journal of cellular physiology","10.1002/jcp.27546",{"id":14584,"title":14585,"authors":14586,"journal":14587,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":14588},1193,"Identification of Two Linear Epitopes on MGF_110-13L Protein of African Swine Fever Virus with Monoclonal Antibodies.","Zhang SJ, Niu B, Liu SM, Zhu YM, Zhao DM, Bu ZG, Hua RH","Animals : an open access journal from MDPI","10.3390/ani14131951",{"id":14590,"title":14591,"authors":14592,"journal":1006,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":14593},1194,"Green nanotechnology of MGF-AuNPs for immunomodulatory intervention in prostate cancer therapy.","Khoobchandani M, Khan A, Katti KK, Thipe VC, Al-Yasiri AY, MohanDoss DKD, Nicholl MB, Lugão AB, Hans CP, Katti KV","10.1038/s41598-021-96224-8",{"id":14595,"title":14596,"authors":14597,"journal":816,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":14598},1195,"Stabilizing Lithium-Metal Host Anodes by Covalently Binding MgF(2) Nanodots to Honeycomb Carbon Nanofibers.","Zhou Z, Hu X, Liu Y, Li S, Guan W, Du Z, Ai W","10.1021/acsami.3c12755",{"id":14600,"title":14601,"authors":14602,"journal":14525,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":14603},1196,"African swine fever virus MGF-360-10L is a novel and crucial virulence factor that mediates ubiquitination and degradation of JAK1 by recruiting the E3 ubiquitin ligase HERC5.","Li D, Peng J, Wu J, Yi J, Wu P, Qi X, Ren J, Peng G, Duan X, Ru Y, Liu H, Tian H, Zheng H","10.1128/mbio.00606-23",{"id":14605,"title":14606,"authors":14607,"journal":4434,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":14608},1197,"Self-powered near-infrared mechanoluminescence through MgO/MgF(2) piezo-photonic heterojunctions.","Wu S, Wang S, Shao Z, Wang Y, Xiong P","10.1038/s41467-025-63980-4",{"id":14610,"title":14611,"authors":14612,"journal":14559,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":14613},1198,"Generation and Genetic Stability of a PolX and 5' MGF-Deficient African Swine Fever Virus Mutant for Vaccine Development.","Pérez-Núñez D, Madden DW, Vigara-Astillero G, Meekins DA, McDowell CD, Libanori-Artiaga B, García-Belmonte R, Bold D, Trujillo JD, Cool K, Kwon T, Balaraman V, Morozov I, Gaudreault NN, Revilla Y, Richt JA","10.3390/vaccines12101125",{"id":14615,"title":14616,"authors":14617,"journal":14618,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":14619},1199,"African Swine Fever Virus MGF-110-9L-deficient Mutant Has Attenuated Virulence in Pigs.","Li D, Liu Y, Qi X, Wen Y, Li P, Ma Z, Liu Y, Zheng H, Liu Z","Virologica Sinica","10.1007/s12250-021-00350-6",{"id":14621,"title":14622,"authors":14623,"journal":14624,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":14625},1200,"The Effects of IGF1 and MGF on Neural Stem Cells in Hypoxic Conditions.","Aydıntuğ-Gürbüz T, Toprak F, Toprak S, Sözer S","Basic and clinical neuroscience","10.32598/bcn.2022.3981.1",{"id":14627,"title":14628,"authors":14629,"journal":1347,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":14630},1201,"African swine fever virus protein MGF-505-7R promotes virulence and pathogenesis by inhibiting JAK1- and JAK2-mediated signaling.","Li D, Zhang J, Yang W, Li P, Ru Y, Kang W, Li L, Ran Y, Zheng H","10.1016/j.jbc.2021.101190",{"id":14632,"title":14633,"authors":14634,"journal":816,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":14635},1202,"Bioinspired Near-Full Transmittance MgF(2) Window for Infrared Detection in Extremely Complex Environments.","Ding Y, Liu L, Wang C, Li C, Lin N, Niu S, Han Z, Duan J","10.1021/acsami.3c04170",{"id":14637,"title":14638,"authors":14639,"journal":12913,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":14640},1203,"Fabrication of Metal-Insulator-Metal Nanostructures Composed of Au-MgF(2)-Au and Its Potential in Responding to Two Different Factors in Sample Solutions Using Individual Plasmon Modes.","Yamada H, Kawasaki D, Sueyoshi K, Hisamoto H, Endo T","10.3390/mi13020257",{"id":14642,"title":14643,"authors":14644,"journal":14645,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":14646},1204,"A Novel PLLA/MgF(2) Coating on Mg Alloy by Ultrasonic Atomization Spraying for Controlling Degradation and Improving Biocompatibility.","Peng W, Chen Y, Fan H, Chen S, Wang H, Song X","Materials (Basel, Switzerland)","10.3390/ma16020682",{"id":14648,"title":14649,"authors":14650,"journal":4208,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":14651},1205,"An in vitro and in vivo comparison of Mg(OH)(2)-, MgF(2)- and HA-coated Mg in degradation and osteointegration.","Cheng S , Wang W , Wang D , Li B , Zhou J , Zhang D , Liu L , Peng F , Liu X , Zhang Y","10.1039/d0bm00467g",{"id":14653,"title":14654,"authors":14655,"journal":14656,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":14657},1206,"Fabrication of an ultra-high quality MgF(2) micro-resonator for a single soliton comb generation.","Qu Z, Liu X, Zhang C, Wang J, Wang Y, Pan Y, Qu J","Optics express","10.1364/OE.478863",{"id":14659,"title":14660,"authors":14661,"journal":7328,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":14662},1207,"The role of mechano growth factor in chondrocytes and cartilage defects: a concise review.","Liu Y, Duan M, Zhang D, Xie J","10.3724/abbs.2023086",{"id":14664,"title":14665,"authors":14666,"journal":773,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":14667},1208,"Mechano-growth factor regulates periodontal ligament stem cell proliferation and differentiation through Fyn-RhoA-YAP signaling.","Feng F, Tu T, Wang H, Song R, Li J, Zhu Y, Zhang S, Zhang M, Zhao Y, Liu Y","10.1016/j.bbrc.2024.150450",{"id":14669,"title":14670,"authors":14671,"journal":14672,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":14673},1209,"Mechano growth factor interacts with nucleolin to protect against cisplatin-induced neurotoxicity.","Podratz JL, Tang JJ, Polzin MJ, Schmeichel AM, Nesbitt JJ, Windebank AJ, Madigan NN","Experimental neurology","10.1016/j.expneurol.2020.113376",{"id":14675,"title":14676,"authors":14677,"journal":7201,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":14678},1210,"Mechano-growth factor E-domain modulates cardiac contractile function through 14-3-3 protein interactomes.","Solís C, Thompson WC, Peña JR, McDermott-Roe C, Langa P, Warren CM, Chrzanowska M, Wolska BM, Solaro RJ, Pieter Detombe, Goldspink PH","10.3389/fphys.2022.1028345",{"id":14680,"title":14681,"authors":14682,"journal":2171,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":14683},1211,"Mechano growth factor (MGF) and transforming growth factor (TGF)-β3 functionalized silk scaffolds enhance articular hyaline cartilage regeneration in rabbit model.","Luo Z, Jiang L, Xu Y, Li H, Xu W, Wu S, Wang Y, Tang Z, Lv Y, Yang L","10.1016/j.biomaterials.2015.01.001",{"id":14685,"title":14686,"authors":14687,"journal":13597,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":14688},1212,"Mechano-growth factor E peptide promotes healing of rat injured tendon.","Zhang B, Luo Q, Kuang D, Ju Y, Song G","10.1007/s10529-016-2162-8",{"id":14690,"title":14691,"authors":14692,"journal":14693,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":14694},1213,"Mechano-growth Factor Expression in Colorectal Cancer Investigated With Fluorescent Gold Nanoparticles.","Alagaratnam S, Yang SY, Loizidou M, Fuller B, Ramesh B","Anticancer research","10.21873/anticanres.13276",{"id":14696,"title":14697,"authors":14698,"journal":14699,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":14700},1214,"Mechano growth factor, a splice variant of IGF-1, promotes neurogenesis in the aging mouse brain.","Tang JJ, Podratz JL, Lange M, Scrable HJ, Jang MH, Windebank AJ","Molecular brain","10.1186/s13041-017-0304-0",{"id":14702,"title":14703,"authors":14704,"journal":14705,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":14706},1215,"Mechano-growth factor protects against mechanical overload induced damage and promotes migration of growth plate chondrocytes through RhoA/YAP pathway.","Jing X, Ye Y, Bao Y, Zhang J, Huang J, Wang R, Guo J, Guo F","Experimental cell research","10.1016/j.yexcr.2018.02.021",{"id":14708,"title":14709,"authors":14710,"journal":14711,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":14712},1216,"Splicing factor-modulated generation of mechano growth factor regulates physiological processes in osteoblasts under mechanical stimuli.","Yi Q, Liu H, Feng J, Wu Y, Sun W, Ou M, Tang L","Cell adhesion & migration","10.1080/19336918.2019.1686103",{"id":14714,"title":14715,"authors":14716,"journal":516,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":14717},1217,"Mechano Growth Factor Accelerates ACL Repair and Improves Cell Mobility of Mechanically Injured Human ACL Fibroblasts by Targeting Rac1-PAK1/2 and RhoA-ROCK1 Pathways.","Sha Y, Zhang B, Chen L, Hong H, Chi Q","10.3390/ijms23084331",{"id":14719,"title":14720,"authors":14721,"journal":14722,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":14723},1218,"The use of mechano growth factor to prevent cartilage degeneration in knee osteoarthritis.","Song Y, Xu K, Yu C, Dong L, Chen P, Lv Y, Chiang MYM, Li L, Liu W, Yang L","Journal of tissue engineering and regenerative medicine","10.1002/term.2493",{"id":14725,"title":14726,"authors":14727,"journal":14728,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":14729},1219,"The role of mechano-growth factor E peptide in the regulation of osteosarcoma.","Shang J, Fan X, Liu H","Oncology letters","10.3892/ol.2015.3339",{"id":14731,"title":14732,"authors":14733,"journal":3115,"year":1122,"citationType":167,"doi":14734},1220,"Mechano Growth Factor E peptide (MGF-E), derived from an isoform of IGF-1, activates human muscle progenitor cells and induces an increase in their fusion potential at different ages.","Kandalla PK, Goldspink G, Butler-Browne G, Mouly V","10.1016/j.mad.2011.02.007",{"id":14736,"title":14737,"authors":14738,"journal":14739,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":14740},1221,"Mechano growth factor attenuates mechanical overload-induced nucleus pulposus cell apoptosis through inhibiting the p38 MAPK pathway.","Xu Q, Fang H, Zhao L, Zhang C, Zhang L, Tian B","Bioscience reports","10.1042/BSR20182462",{"id":14742,"title":14743,"authors":14744,"journal":14745,"year":1122,"citationType":167,"doi":14746},1222,"Mechano growth factor E peptide promotes osteoblasts proliferation and bone-defect healing in rabbits.","Deng M, Zhang B, Wang K, Liu F, Xiao H, Zhao J, Liu P, Li Y, Lin F, Wang Y","International orthopaedics","10.1007/s00264-010-1141-2",{"id":14748,"title":14749,"authors":14750,"journal":13597,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":14751},1223,"Mechano growth factor E peptide inhibits invasion of melanoma cells and up-regulates CHOP expression via endoplasmic reticulum stress.","He J, Dong L, Xu K, Qian Y, Wang C, Sha Y, Zhong JL, Liu W, Lv Y, Song Y, Yang L","10.1007/s10529-017-2448-5",{"id":14753,"title":14754,"authors":14755,"journal":14756,"year":229,"citationType":167},1224,"Growth hormone stimulates mechano growth factor expression and activates myoblast transformation in C2C12 cells.","Imanaka M, Iida K, Murawaki A, Nishizawa H, Fukuoka H, Takeno R, Takahashi Y, Okimura Y, Kaji H, Chihara K","The Kobe journal of medical sciences",{"id":14758,"title":14759,"authors":14760,"journal":14761,"year":229,"citationType":167,"doi":14762},1225,"Producing human mechano growth factor (MGF) in Escherichia coli.","Kuznetsova TV, Schulga AA, Wulfson AN, Keruchenko JS, Ermolyuk YS, Keruchenko ID, Tikhonov RV, Lisitskaya KV, Makarov AA, Chobotova K, Khomenkov VG, Khotchenkov VP, Popov VO, Kirpichnikov MP, Shevelev AB","Protein expression and purification","10.1016/j.pep.2007.10.023",{"id":14764,"title":14765,"authors":14766,"journal":11668,"year":1152,"citationType":167,"doi":14767},1226,"Microencapsulation of mechano growth factor E peptide for sustained delivery and bioactivity maintenance.","Niu X, Chen P, Jia X, Wang L, Li P, Yang L, Wang Y, Fan Y","10.1016/j.ijpharm.2014.04.054",{"id":14769,"title":14770,"authors":14771,"journal":3369,"year":1122,"citationType":167,"doi":14772},1227,"Insulinlike growth factor-1Ec (MGF) expression in eutopic and ectopic endometrium: characterization of the MGF E-peptide actions in vitro.","Milingos DS, Philippou A, Armakolas A, Papageorgiou E, Sourla A, Protopapas A, Liapi A, Antsaklis A, Mastrominas M, Koutsilieris M","10.2119/molmed.2010.00043",{"id":14774,"title":14775,"authors":14776,"journal":7201,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":14777},1228,"Overexpression of Mechano-Growth Factor Modulates Inflammatory Cytokine Expression and Macrophage Resolution in Skeletal Muscle Injury.","Sun KT, Cheung KK, Au SWN, Yeung SS, Yeung EW","10.3389/fphys.2018.00999",{"id":14779,"title":14780,"authors":14781,"journal":13597,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":14782},1229,"Mechano growth factor pretreatment yield mechanical stimuli induced cell stress responses in ligament fibroblasts of osteoarthritis via activating ATF-2.","Ma Y, Song Y, Li L, Dong L, Wang C, Wang P, Yang L","10.1007/s10529-020-02866-5",{"id":14784,"title":14785,"authors":14786,"journal":1551,"year":1196,"citationType":167,"doi":14787},1230,"Mechano growth factor (MGF) promotes proliferation and inhibits differentiation of porcine satellite cells (PSCs) by down-regulation of key myogenic transcriptional factors.","Qin LL, Li XK, Xu J, Mo DL, Tong X, Pan ZC, Li JQ, Chen YS, Zhang Z, Wang C, Long QM","10.1007/s11010-012-1413-9",{"id":14789,"title":14790,"authors":14791,"journal":14722,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":14792},1231,"Potential effect of mechano growth factor E-domain peptide on axonal guidance growth in primary cultured cortical neurons of rats.","Liu M, Niu X, Zhou G, Jia Z, Li P, Fan Y","10.1002/term.2364",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":8,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":14795},"2026-01-05T22:11:59.195788","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/mgf.webp","2888.16","F3Mg-","447728","5-7 minutes","IM (local)","[F-].[F-].[F-].[Mg+2]",[14804,14805,14806,14807],"Mechano Growth Factor","IGF-1Ec","IGF-I Ec","MGF E-peptide",[14809,14810,14811,14812],"Muscle hypertrophy and regeneration","Satellite cell biology","Exercise-induced muscle adaptation","Sarcopenia research",{"human":14814,"animal":14815,"inVitro":14816,"uncertain":14817},"Human evidence is observational: muscle biopsy studies show the MGF (IGF-1Ec) splice variant is upregulated in skeletal muscle after resistance exercise and injury. No interventional clinical trials of MGF peptide administration in humans were identified.","Animal work (largely from the Goldspink group) links MGF expression to muscle satellite-cell activation and regenerative responses after mechanical loading and injury.","An in-vitro study with human muscle progenitor cells found that the MGF E-peptide activated these cells and increased their fusion potential, including in cells from older donors.","Benefits of injected MGF or PEG-MGF (muscle growth, recovery) are not supported by clinical trials; PEG-MGF's extended-duration claims lack published human pharmacokinetic data.",[14819],{"finding":14820,"source":14821,"year":1122,"link":14822,"evidenceLevel":343},"The mechano growth factor E-peptide (MGF-E), derived from an IGF-1 isoform, activated human muscle progenitor cells and increased their fusion potential across donor ages.","In-vitro study (Mechanisms of Ageing and Development)","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21354439/","MGF is an endogenous splice variant, not an approved drug. Exogenous MGF peptide use has no clinical trial support; human data are limited to expression measurements in muscle biopsies. Half-life and dosing claims for MGF/PEG-MGF are not established in reliable published sources.","MGF is the IGF-1Ec splice variant expressed locally in skeletal muscle after mechanical loading; the E-peptide domain activates muscle progenitor cells in culture. As a research peptide it is administered by injection, with pegylated (PEG-MGF) forms proposed to extend duration — neither has published human pharmacokinetic characterization.",[14826,14829,14832],{"question":14827,"answer":14828},"What is MGF?","Mechano growth factor (IGF-1Ec) is a locally produced splice variant of IGF-1 that rises in skeletal muscle after exercise or injury and is linked to satellite-cell activation.",{"question":14830,"answer":14831},"Is MGF FDA approved?","No. It is an unapproved research peptide.",{"question":14833,"answer":14834},"Does MGF build muscle in humans?","There is no clinical trial evidence that injected MGF builds muscle in humans; the peptide's role is established only as an endogenous, exercise-responsive factor.",{"id":434,"name":14836,"slug":14837,"description":14838,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":28,"views":2290,"shortDescription":14839,"peptideBenefits":14840,"benefits":14853,"peptideSideEffects":14858,"sideEffects":14867,"dosage":5043,"mechanism":14872,"safetyNote":14873,"athleteWarning":7487,"citations":14874,"research":14903,"statsCache":14904,"imageUrl":14906,"molecularWeight":14907,"halfLife":14908,"administrationRoute":302,"totalMentions":861,"dataCompleteness":6033,"hasResearchData":28,"protocols":14909,"aliases":14924,"researchAreas":14929,"evidence":14932,"keyStudies":14937,"limitations":14942,"pharmacology":14943,"faqs":14944,"lastReviewed":359},"PEG-MGF","peg-mgf","PEG-MGF (Pegylated Mechano Growth Factor) is a modified version of MGF (Mechano Growth Factor) with polyethylene glycol (PEG) molecules attached to extend its biological half-life. While native MGF acts locally with a very short half-life of minutes, PEGylation allows the peptide to circulate systemically and remain active for hours. This modification fundamentally changes MGF's pharmacokinetics from a local autocrine/paracrine factor to a potential systemic anabolic agent. Research indicates PEG-MGF can activate satellite cells in multiple muscle groups when administered systemically, potentially promoting muscle growth and recovery throughout the body. The extended half-life allows for less frequent dosing compared to non-pegylated MGF. Studies suggest applications for muscle hypertrophy, injury recovery, and conditions involving muscle wasting. However, the systemic nature may reduce the specificity of local MGF's targeted muscle repair function. PEG-MGF requires subcutaneous or intramuscular injection and remains popular in research examining IGF-1 splice variant biology.","Pegylated mechano growth factor for muscle repair and growth",[14841,14845,14848,14850],{"id":14842,"benefit":14843,"benefitCategory":14844,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},440,"Extended half-life vs MGF","Pharmacokinetics",{"id":14846,"benefit":14847,"benefitCategory":7445,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},441,"Systemic effects possible",{"id":14849,"benefit":14484,"benefitCategory":7445,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},442,{"id":14851,"benefit":14852,"benefitCategory":7445,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},443,"Muscle regeneration support",[14854,14855,14856,14857],{"id":14842,"benefit":14843,"benefitCategory":14844,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":14846,"benefit":14847,"benefitCategory":7445,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":14849,"benefit":14484,"benefitCategory":7445,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":14851,"benefit":14852,"benefitCategory":7445,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},[14859,14863,14864,14866],{"id":3696,"sideEffect":1878,"description":23,"severity":1879,"frequency":6526,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":14860,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":14836,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":14861,"management":14862,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3485521/","Post-injection","Monitor glucose; eat with dosing",{"id":1849,"sideEffect":983,"description":23,"severity":6526,"frequency":6526,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":1852,"sideEffect":14865,"description":23,"severity":1669,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":682,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Potential PEG immunogenicity",{"id":1854,"sideEffect":1900,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":5477,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},[14868,14869,14870,14871],{"id":3696,"sideEffect":1878,"description":23,"severity":1879,"frequency":6526,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":14860,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":14836,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":14861,"management":14862,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":1849,"sideEffect":983,"description":23,"severity":6526,"frequency":6526,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":1852,"sideEffect":14865,"description":23,"severity":1669,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":682,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":1854,"sideEffect":1900,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":5477,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Pegylated MGF with extended half-life for systemic muscle recovery","Research compound only. WADA BANNED. Very limited safety data. PEGylated for extended duration.",[14875,14881,14886,14891,14897],{"id":14876,"title":14877,"authors":14878,"journal":14879,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":14880},1454,"Injectable Hydrogels for Programmable Nanoparticle Release.","Shi W, Xi Y, Sheng X, Das S, He D, Collins K, Hu Y, Finn MG","Advanced functional materials","10.1002/adfm.202409796",{"id":14882,"title":14883,"authors":14884,"journal":816,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":14885},1455,"Targeted Polymeric Nanoparticles Based on Mangiferin for Enhanced Protection of Pancreatic β-Cells and Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus Efficacy.","Wang M, Zhang Z, Huo Q, Wang M, Sun Y, Liu H, Chang J, He B, Liang Y","10.1021/acsami.1c22964",{"id":14887,"title":14888,"authors":14889,"journal":816,"year":1152,"citationType":167,"doi":14890},1456,"Polypeptide thermogels as a three dimensional culture scaffold for hepatogenic differentiation of human tonsil-derived mesenchymal stem cells.","Kim SJ, Park MH, Moon HJ, Park JH, Ko du Y, Jeong B","10.1021/am504652y",{"id":14892,"title":14893,"authors":14894,"journal":14895,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":14896},1457,"Dual Catalytic Ring-Opening Polymerization of Ethylene Carbonate for the Preparation of Degradable PEG.","von Seggern N, Schindler T, Naumann S","Biomacromolecules","10.1021/acs.biomac.0c00360",{"id":14898,"title":14899,"authors":14900,"journal":14901,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":14902},1458,"Fluoride removal from groundwater via powder-nano MgO adsorption: novel adsorbents development and mechanisms studies novel adsorbents development and mechanisms studies.","Ou JH, Chen SC, Lin WZ, Verpoort F, Surampalli RY, Kao CM","Environmental science and pollution research international","10.1007/s11356-025-37091-y",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":861,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":14905},"2026-01-26T08:09:09.988951","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/peg-mgf.webp","17500.0","Hours to days (extended by PEGylation)",[14910,14913,14918,14921],{"name":14911,"dose":6000,"frequency":14912,"route":14441},"General Recovery Protocol","2-3 times weekly",{"name":14914,"dose":14915,"frequency":14916,"route":14917},"Targeted Muscle Recovery","200-400mcg","Post-workout, 2-3 times weekly","Intramuscular (bilateral, near target muscle)",{"name":14919,"dose":14915,"frequency":14912,"route":14920},"Injury Recovery Protocol","Intramuscular near injury site",{"name":14922,"dose":5810,"frequency":14923,"route":311},"Conservative Research Protocol","2 times weekly",[14925,14836,14926,14927,14928],"PEGylated mechano growth factor","PEG IGF-1Ec","Mechano growth factor (parent)","MGF",[14481,14484,14930,14931],"Muscle injury recovery","Age-related sarcopenia (proposed)",{"human":14933,"animal":14934,"inVitro":14935,"uncertain":14936},"No published human clinical trials of PEG-MGF were identified.","MGF (the IGF-1Ec splice variant) is upregulated in muscle after mechanical loading and injury in animal models; rodent studies suggest roles in satellite cell activation and muscle repair. PEG-MGF-specific published animal data are sparse.","In vitro studies report that MGF E-domain peptides promote myoblast (e.g., C2C12) proliferation.","Performance and bodybuilding claims, dosing and safety for PEG-MGF in humans are unsupported by published research; most information comes from vendor literature.",[14938],{"finding":14939,"source":14940,"year":173,"link":14941,"evidenceLevel":50},"Review of satellite cell activation during muscle injury describes IGF-1 splice variants, including mechano growth factor (MGF), in muscle regeneration.","Review article (Journal of Anatomy, PMC)","https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1571137/","PEG-MGF has essentially no peer-reviewed clinical literature; native MGF data are mostly in vitro and animal; the pharmacokinetic effects of PEGylation are poorly published; dosing and safety in humans are unknown.","MGF is the mechano-sensitive IGF-1Ec splice variant produced locally in muscle in response to loading and injury. PEGylation (attachment of polyethylene glycol) is intended to prolong the short native half-life. No published human pharmacokinetic data for PEG-MGF.",[14945,14948],{"question":14946,"answer":14947},"Is PEG-MGF FDA-approved?","No. It is a research compound with no approved human use.",{"question":14949,"answer":14950},"Does PEG-MGF build muscle?","Cell and animal data suggest roles in muscle repair, but no human evidence supports performance claims.",{"id":9949,"name":14952,"slug":14953,"description":14954,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":15,"views":2486,"researchStatus":14955,"peptideBenefits":14956,"benefits":14965,"peptideSideEffects":14972,"sideEffects":14977,"dosage":14980,"mechanism":14981,"safetyNote":14982,"athleteWarning":14983,"citations":14984,"research":15035,"statsCache":15036,"imageUrl":15038,"molecularWeight":15039,"molecularFormula":15040,"pubchemId":15041,"halfLife":15042,"casNumber":15043,"smiles":15044,"totalMentions":532,"dataCompleteness":1916,"hasResearchData":28,"protocols":15045,"aliases":15061,"researchAreas":15064,"evidence":15068,"keyStudies":15072,"limitations":15081,"pharmacology":15082,"faqs":15083,"lastReviewed":359},"SLU PP 332","slu-pp-332","SLU PP 332 is an experimental small molecule exercise mimetic that activates estrogen-related receptor (ERR) signaling pathways, particularly ERRα, ERRβ, and ERRγ, which play crucial roles in mitochondrial biogenesis and oxidative metabolism. ERRs are key regulators of genes involved in energy production and fatty acid oxidation, normally activated by exercise. Research demonstrates SLU PP 332 increases mitochondrial content, enhances oxidative capacity, improves endurance performance, and promotes fat oxidation in animal models without actual exercise. The compound effectively recapitulates some molecular signatures of endurance training. Studies show potential applications for obesity, metabolic syndrome, muscular dystrophies, and conditions where exercise is limited or impossible. SLU PP 332 represents a novel approach to exercise mimicry distinct from AMPK activators like AICAR. The compound is in early research stages with limited published human data. It holds promise for conditions where exercise prescription is challenging, though questions remain about whether pharmacological exercise mimicry can fully replicate the comprehensive benefits of physical activity.","Research compound - Exercise mimetic",[14957,14958,14959,14961,14962,14964],{"id":2620,"benefit":13526,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3318,"benefit":13767,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3321,"benefit":14960,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Metabolic activation",{"id":3324,"benefit":13536,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":13462,"benefit":14963,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Energy enhancement",{"id":2623,"benefit":13539,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},[14966,14967,14968,14969,14970,14971],{"id":2620,"benefit":13526,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3318,"benefit":13767,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3321,"benefit":14960,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3324,"benefit":13536,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":13462,"benefit":14963,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":2623,"benefit":13539,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},[14973,14975],{"id":9838,"sideEffect":14974,"description":23,"severity":6526,"frequency":6526,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Limited safety data available",{"id":9844,"sideEffect":14976,"description":23,"severity":6526,"frequency":6526,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Early-stage research compound",[14978,14979],{"id":9838,"sideEffect":14974,"description":23,"severity":6526,"frequency":6526,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":9844,"sideEffect":14976,"description":23,"severity":6526,"frequency":6526,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Research protocols under development - dosage not yet established","Activates AMPK and ERR pathways to mimic exercise-induced metabolic changes","Early-stage research compound. Safety profile under investigation.","Not currently WADA banned but may be evaluated as research progresses",[14985,14990,14995,15000,15006,15011,15017,15023,15029],{"id":14986,"title":14987,"authors":14988,"journal":4246,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":14989},1704,"A Synthetic ERR Agonist Alleviates Metabolic Syndrome.","Billon C, Schoepke E, Avdagic A, Chatterjee A, Butler AA, Elgendy B, Walker JK, Burris TP","10.1124/jpet.123.001733",{"id":14991,"title":14992,"authors":14993,"journal":436,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":14994},1705,"Novel Pan-ERR Agonists Ameliorate Heart Failure Through Enhancing Cardiac Fatty Acid Metabolism and Mitochondrial Function.","Xu W, Billon C, Li H, Wilderman A, Qi L, Graves A, Rideb JRDC, Zhao Y, Hayes M, Yu K, Losby M, Hampton CS, Adeyemi CM, Hong SJ, Nasiotis E, Fu C, Oh TG, Fan W, Downes M, Welch RD, Evans RM, Milosavljevic A, Walker JK, Jensen BC, Pei L, Burris T, Zhang L","10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.123.066542",{"id":14996,"title":14997,"authors":14998,"journal":5338,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":14999},1706,"Synthetic ERRα/β/γ Agonist Induces an ERRα-Dependent Acute Aerobic Exercise Response and Enhances Exercise Capacity.","Billon C, Sitaula S, Banerjee S, Welch R, Elgendy B, Hegazy L, Oh TG, Kazantzis M, Chatterjee A, Chrivia J, Hayes ME, Xu W, Hamilton A, Huss JM, Zhang L, Walker JK, Downes M, Evans RM, Burris TP","10.1021/acschembio.2c00720",{"id":15001,"title":15002,"authors":15003,"journal":15004,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":15005},1707,"Estrogen-Related Receptor Agonism Reverses Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Inflammation in the Aging Kidney.","Wang XX, Myakala K, Libby AE, Krawczyk E, Panov J, Jones BA, Bhasin K, Shults N, Qi Y, Krausz KW, Zerfas PM, Takahashi S, Daneshpajouhnejad P, Titievsky A, Taranenko E, Billon C, Chatterjee A, Elgendy B, Walker JK, Albanese C, Kopp JB, Rosenberg AZ, Gonzalez FJ, Guha U, Brodsky L, Burris TP, Levi M","The American journal of pathology","10.1016/j.ajpath.2023.07.008",{"id":15007,"title":15008,"authors":15009,"journal":7201,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":15010},1708,"Targeting ERRs to counteract age-related muscle atrophy associated with physical inactivity: a pilot study.","Bonanni R, Falvino A, Matticari A, Rinaldi AM, D'Arcangelo G, Cifelli P, Iundusi R, Gasbarra E, Tancredi V, Cariati I, Tarantino U","10.3389/fphys.2025.1616693",{"id":15012,"title":15013,"authors":15014,"journal":15015,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":15016},1709,"Effects of increasing walking cadence on gait biomechanics in adults with knee osteoarthritis.","James KA, Corrigan P, Yen SC, Hasson CJ, Davis IS, Stefanik JJ","Journal of biomechanics","10.1016/j.jbiomech.2024.112394",{"id":15018,"title":15019,"authors":15020,"journal":15021,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":15022},1710,"Real-World Usage of the WavelinQ EndoAVF System.","Zemela MS, Minami HR, Alvarez AC, Smeds MR","Annals of vascular surgery","10.1016/j.avsg.2020.05.006",{"id":15024,"title":15025,"authors":15026,"journal":15027,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":15028},1711,"Suture augmentation of acromioclavicular and coracoclavicular ligament reconstruction for acute acromioclavicular dislocation.","Liu Y, Zhang X, Yu Y, Ding W, Gao Y, Wang Y, Yang R, Dhawan V","Medicine","10.1097/MD.0000000000027007",{"id":15030,"title":15031,"authors":15032,"journal":15033,"year":1384,"citationType":167,"doi":15034},1712,"Astigmatism in the Early Treatment for Retinopathy Of Prematurity Study: findings to 3 years of age.","Davitt BV, Dobson V, Quinn GE, Hardy RJ, Tung B, Good WV, Early Treatment for Retinopathy of Prematurity Cooperative Group","Ophthalmology","10.1016/j.ophtha.2008.09.035",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":532,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":15037},"2026-01-05T22:12:06.809967","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/slu-pp-332.webp","500.0","C18H14N2O2","5338394","Unknown (early research stage)","303760-60-3","C1=CC=C2C=C(C=CC2=C1)/C=N/NC(=O)C3=CC=C(C=C3)O",[15046,15050,15053,15056],{"name":15047,"dose":15048,"frequency":4299,"route":15049},"RESEARCH USE ONLY - Standard metabolic protocol","50 mg/kg (animal dosing)","Intraperitoneal injection (IP)",{"name":15051,"dose":15048,"frequency":15052,"route":15049},"RESEARCH USE ONLY - Acute exercise enhancement","Single dose 1 hour pre-exercise",{"name":15054,"dose":15048,"frequency":15055,"route":15049},"RESEARCH USE ONLY - Extended treatment","Twice daily for 4-8 weeks",{"name":15057,"dose":15058,"frequency":15059,"route":15060},"HUMAN DOSING NOT ESTABLISHED","No approved human dose","Awaiting clinical trials","Oral formulation in development",[15062,14952,15063],"SLU-PP-332","ERR pan-agonist",[15065,15066,13536,15067],"Exercise mimetics / endurance","Estrogen-related receptor (ERR) signaling","Metabolic syndrome (preclinical)",{"human":23,"animal":15069,"inVitro":15070,"uncertain":15071},"In mice, SLU-PP-332 induced an ERRα-dependent acute aerobic exercise response and enhanced exercise capacity (ACS Chem Biol 2023). A separate mouse study found the ERR agonist alleviated metabolic-syndrome features including fatty liver, cholesterol, and weight gain (J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2024).","In cell assays, SLU-PP-332 activates ERRα, ERRβ, and ERRγ and upregulates oxidative-metabolism and mitochondrial genes.","Claims that it 'mimics exercise' in humans are speculative: all functional evidence is from rodents, and poor oral bioavailability has been reported.",[15073,15077],{"finding":15074,"source":15075,"year":478,"link":15076,"evidenceLevel":50},"A synthetic ERRα/β/γ agonist (SLU-PP-332) induced an ERRα-dependent acute aerobic exercise response and enhanced exercise capacity in mice.","Preclinical study (ACS Chem Biol)","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36988910/",{"finding":15078,"source":15079,"year":458,"link":15080,"evidenceLevel":50},"In mice, the synthetic ERR agonist alleviated features of metabolic syndrome, including hepatic steatosis and weight gain.","Preclinical study (J Pharmacol Exp Ther)","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37739806/","All evidence is preclinical (rodent); there are no human safety, pharmacokinetic, or efficacy data. Bioavailability and dosing are unresolved, and long-term effects of ERR pathway activation are unknown.","Pan-agonist of estrogen-related receptors (ERRα/β/γ) that drives expression of mitochondrial and oxidative-metabolism genes; in rodent studies typically administered by injection, with poor oral bioavailability reported.",[15084,15087],{"question":15085,"answer":15086},"Has SLU-PP-332 been tested in humans?","No. Published studies are limited to mice and cell assays.",{"question":15088,"answer":15089},"Does SLU-PP-332 actually improve endurance?","In mice it increased exercise capacity and metabolic fitness; no human data exist.",{"id":3766,"name":15091,"slug":15092,"description":15093,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":28,"views":5369,"shortDescription":15094,"researchStatus":15095,"peptideBenefits":15096,"benefits":15107,"peptideSideEffects":15114,"sideEffects":15124,"dosage":15129,"mechanism":15130,"safetyNote":148,"athleteWarning":13564,"chemicalMakeup":15131,"citations":15132,"research":15276,"statsCache":15277,"imageUrl":15279,"molecularWeight":15280,"molecularFormula":15281,"pubchemId":15282,"halfLife":7385,"administrationRoute":4541,"casNumber":15283,"smiles":15284,"totalMentions":8,"dataCompleteness":1916,"hasResearchData":28,"aliases":15285,"researchAreas":15290,"evidence":15296,"keyStudies":15301,"limitations":15309,"pharmacology":15310,"faqs":15311,"lastReviewed":359},"SR9009 (Stenabolic)","sr9009","SR9009 (Stenabolic) is a synthetic REV-ERB agonist (not a peptide) that influences circadian rhythm regulation and metabolic processes. REV-ERB proteins are nuclear receptors that control the expression of genes involved in lipid and glucose metabolism, inflammation, and circadian rhythms. Research demonstrates SR9009 increases exercise capacity, enhances fat oxidation, decreases cholesterol and triglycerides, and reduces inflammation in animal models. The compound effectively mimics some benefits of exercise by activating REV-ERB-dependent metabolic programs. Studies show improved endurance without actual exercise training and beneficial effects on body composition. SR9009 may also influence sleep-wake cycles through its circadian effects. However, the compound has very poor oral bioavailability, limiting its practical application. Like Cardarine, SR9009 is often grouped with research peptides and SARMs in fitness communities despite being a different class of compound. It is banned by WADA for competitive sports. Long-term safety data in humans is lacking, and caution is warranted given limited clinical research.","REV-ERB agonist (Stenabolic) for metabolic enhancement and endurance","Research compound - Rev-ErbA agonist",[15097,15098,15100,15101,15103,15105],{"id":673,"benefit":6871,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":677,"benefit":15099,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Increased endurance",{"id":680,"benefit":13767,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":14037,"benefit":15102,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Improved mitochondrial function",{"id":14040,"benefit":15104,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Circadian rhythm optimization",{"id":14043,"benefit":15106,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Exercise capacity",[15108,15109,15110,15111,15112,15113],{"id":673,"benefit":6871,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":677,"benefit":15099,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":680,"benefit":13767,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":14037,"benefit":15102,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":14040,"benefit":15104,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":14043,"benefit":15106,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},[15115,15120,15122,15123],{"id":3692,"sideEffect":15116,"description":23,"severity":6526,"frequency":6526,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":15117,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":15118,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":6526,"management":15119,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Unknown side effect","webmd.com","SR9009","Not established",{"id":13655,"sideEffect":15121,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Insomnia if taken late",{"id":13660,"sideEffect":112,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":13665,"sideEffect":12773,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},[15125,15126,15127,15128],{"id":3692,"sideEffect":15116,"description":23,"severity":6526,"frequency":6526,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":15117,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":15118,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":6526,"management":15119,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":13655,"sideEffect":15121,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":13660,"sideEffect":112,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":13665,"sideEffect":12773,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"20-30mg daily","Rev-ErbA agonist that enhances metabolism","Rev-ErbA agonist, non-peptide synthetic compound",[15133,15138,15143,15148,15153,15158,15164,15169,15174,15179,15184,15189,15195,15201,15206,15211,15216,15222,15228,15234,15239,15244,15250,15255,15260,15265,15270],{"id":10455,"title":15134,"authors":155,"journal":15135,"year":458,"citationType":158,"doi":15136,"researchPaperId":15137},"SR9009: REV-ERB Agonist for Metabolic Disorders","Pharmacology & Therapeutics","10.1016/j.pharmthera.2024.108612","pubmed_38754321",{"id":15139,"title":15140,"authors":15141,"journal":2827,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":15142},1738,"SR9009 attenuates inflammation-related NPMSC pyroptosis and IVDD through NR1D1/NLRP3/IL-1β pathway.","Huang ZN, Wang J, Wang ZY, Min LY, Ni HL, Han YL, Tian YY, Cui YZ, Han JX, Cheng XF","10.1016/j.isci.2024.109733",{"id":15144,"title":15145,"authors":15146,"journal":2177,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":15147},1739,"SR9009 improves heart function after pressure overload independent of cardiac REV-ERB.","Li H, Song S, Tien CL, Qi L, Graves A, Nasiotis E, Burris TP, Zhao Y, Sun Z, Zhang L","10.3389/fcvm.2022.952114",{"id":15149,"title":15150,"authors":15151,"journal":1158,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":15152},1740,"SR9009 inhibits lethal prostate cancer subtype 1 by regulating the LXRα/FOXM1 pathway independently of REV-ERBs.","Xu H, Zhang J, Zheng X, Tan P, Xiong X, Yi X, Yang Y, Wang Y, Liao D, Li H, Wei Q, Ai J, Yang L","10.1038/s41419-022-05392-6",{"id":15154,"title":15155,"authors":15156,"journal":1481,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":15157},1741,"SR9009 has REV-ERB-independent effects on cell proliferation and metabolism.","Dierickx P, Emmett MJ, Jiang C, Uehara K, Liu M, Adlanmerini M, Lazar MA","10.1073/pnas.1904226116",{"id":15159,"title":15160,"authors":15161,"journal":15162,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":15163},1742,"SR9009 Regulates Acute Lung Injury in Mice Induced by Sepsis.","Hu M, Zhang L, Cao J, Jiang Y, Liu G","Canadian respiratory journal","10.1155/2022/5802938",{"id":15165,"title":15166,"authors":15167,"journal":7302,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":15168},1743,"SR9009 induces a REV-ERB dependent anti-small-cell lung cancer effect through inhibition of autophagy.","Shen W, Zhang W, Ye W, Wang H, Zhang Q, Shen J, Hong Q, Li X, Wen G, Wei T, Zhang J","10.7150/thno.42478",{"id":15170,"title":15171,"authors":15172,"journal":516,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":15173},1744,"REV-ERBα Agonist SR9009 Promotes a Negative Energy Balance in Goldfish.","Saiz N, Herrera-Castillo L, Isorna E, Delgado MJ, Conde-Sieira M, Soengas JL, de Pedro N","10.3390/ijms23062921",{"id":15175,"title":15176,"authors":15177,"journal":1145,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":15178},1745,"SR9009 attenuates TGF-β1-induced renal fibrotic responses by inhibiting the NOX4/p38 signaling pathway in NRK-49F cells.","Takaguri A, Shinohe S, Noro R, Sakuraba M, Satoh C, Ohashi R, Satoh K","10.1016/j.ejphar.2024.177162",{"id":15180,"title":15181,"authors":15182,"journal":2183,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":15183},1746,"Rev-erbα agonist SR9009 protects against cerebral ischemic injury through mechanisms involving Nrf2 pathway.","Sheng M, Chen X, Yu Y, Wu Q, Kou J, Chen G","10.3389/fphar.2023.1102567",{"id":15185,"title":15186,"authors":15187,"journal":444,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":15188},1747,"SR9009 administered for one day after myocardial ischemia-reperfusion prevents heart failure in mice by targeting the cardiac inflammasome.","Reitz CJ, Alibhai FJ, Khatua TN, Rasouli M, Bridle BW, Burris TP, Martino TA","10.1038/s42003-019-0595-z",{"id":15190,"title":15191,"authors":15192,"journal":15193,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":15194},1748,"Time-dependent effect of REV-ERBα agonist SR9009 on nonalcoholic steatohepatitis and gut microbiota in mice.","Ni Y, Nan S, Zheng L, Zhang L, Zhao Y, Fu Z","Chronobiology international","10.1080/07420528.2023.2207649",{"id":15196,"title":15197,"authors":15198,"journal":15199,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":15200},1749,"REV-ERB Agonist SR9009 Regulates the Proliferation and Neurite Outgrowth/Suppression of Cultured Rat Adult Hippocampal Neural Stem/Progenitor Cells in a Concentration-Dependent Manner.","Shimozaki K","Cellular and molecular neurobiology","10.1007/s10571-021-01053-y",{"id":15202,"title":15203,"authors":15204,"journal":4434,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":15205},1750,"Deficiency of intestinal Bmal1 prevents obesity induced by high-fat feeding.","Yu F, Wang Z, Zhang T, Chen X, Xu H, Wang F, Guo L, Chen M, Liu K, Wu B","10.1038/s41467-021-25674-5",{"id":15207,"title":15208,"authors":15209,"journal":6717,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":15210},1751,"REV-ERBα agonist SR9009 suppresses IL-1β production in macrophages through BMAL1-dependent inhibition of inflammasome.","Hong H, Cheung YM, Cao X, Wu Y, Li C, Tian XY","10.1016/j.bcp.2021.114701",{"id":15212,"title":15213,"authors":15214,"journal":2076,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":15215},1752,"Identification of a small molecule SR9009 that activates NRF2 to counteract cellular senescence.","Gao LB, Wang YH, Liu ZH, Sun Y, Cai P, Jing Q","10.1111/acel.13483",{"id":15217,"title":15218,"authors":15219,"journal":15220,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":15221},1753,"Circadian Clock REV-ERBs Agonist SR9009 Induces Synergistic Antitumor Activity in Multiple Myeloma by Suppressing Glucose-Regulated Protein 78-Dependent Autophagy and Lipogenesis.","Wang R, Liu SL, Guo QQ, Shi XH, Ma MM","World journal of oncology","10.14740/wjon1681",{"id":15223,"title":15224,"authors":15225,"journal":15226,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":15227},1754,"Chemotherapeutic Effect of SR9009, a REV-ERB Agonist, on the Human Glioblastoma T98G Cells.","Wagner PM, Monjes NM, Guido ME","ASN neuro","10.1177/1759091419892713",{"id":15229,"title":15230,"authors":15231,"journal":15232,"year":1196,"citationType":167,"doi":15233},1755,"Regulation of circadian behaviour and metabolism by synthetic REV-ERB agonists.","Solt LA, Wang Y, Banerjee S, Hughes T, Kojetin DJ, Lundasen T, Shin Y, Liu J, Cameron MD, Noel R, Yoo SH, Takahashi JS, Butler AA, Kamenecka TM, Burris TP","Nature","10.1038/nature11030",{"id":15235,"title":15236,"authors":15237,"journal":1962,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":15238},1756,"Rev-erbs agonist SR9009 alleviates ischemia-reperfusion injury by heightening endogenous cardioprotection at onset of type-2 diabetes in rats: Down-regulating ferritinophagy/ferroptosis signaling.","Huang Q, Tian L, Zhao X, Lei S, Zhao B, Qiu Z, Xia ZY","10.1016/j.biopha.2022.113595",{"id":15240,"title":15241,"authors":15242,"journal":4434,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":15243},1757,"REV-ERBα integrates colon clock with experimental colitis through regulation of NF-κB/NLRP3 axis.","Wang S, Lin Y, Yuan X, Li F, Guo L, Wu B","10.1038/s41467-018-06568-5",{"id":15245,"title":15246,"authors":15247,"journal":15248,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":15249},1758,"Anti-influenza virus activity of the REV-ERBα agonist SR9009 and related analogues.","Cheng Y, Yang C, Li Z, Li X, Zou X, Li L, Cui M, Tian A, Li X, He W, Zhao Z, Ding Y","Antiviral research","10.1016/j.antiviral.2022.105418",{"id":15251,"title":15252,"authors":15253,"journal":2656,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":15254},1759,"NR1D1 Stimulates Antitumor Immune Responses in Breast Cancer by Activating cGAS-STING Signaling.","Ka NL, Park MK, Kim SS, Jeon Y, Hwang S, Kim SM, Lim GY, Lee H, Lee MO","10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-23-0329",{"id":15256,"title":15257,"authors":15258,"journal":4657,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":15259},1760,"Regulation of exercise ability and glycolipid metabolism by synthetic SR9009 analogues as new REV-ERB-α agonists.","Li L, Yang C, Qiao X, Yang X, Zhang J, Cui M, Li Z, Tian A, Li X, Zou X, Li Y, He W, Chen Y, He X","10.1016/j.bmc.2024.117845",{"id":15261,"title":15262,"authors":15263,"journal":1944,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":15264},1761,"The circadian clock protein Rev-erbα provides neuroprotection and attenuates neuroinflammation against Parkinson's disease via the microglial NLRP3 inflammasome.","Kou L, Chi X, Sun Y, Han C, Wan F, Hu J, Yin S, Wu J, Li Y, Zhou Q, Zou W, Xiong N, Huang J, Xia Y, Wang T","10.1186/s12974-022-02494-y",{"id":15266,"title":15267,"authors":15268,"journal":516,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":15269},1762,"In Vitro Metabolic Studies of REV-ERB Agonists SR9009 and SR9011.","Geldof L, Deventer K, Roels K, Tudela E, Van Eeno P","10.3390/ijms17101676",{"id":15271,"title":15272,"authors":15273,"journal":15274,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":15275},1763,"Rhythms under tension: Circadian clocks in an Unsynced Society.","Kattner AA","Biomedical journal","10.1016/j.bj.2025.100873",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":8,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":15278},"2026-01-05T22:12:09.043108","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/sr9009.webp","437.94","C20H24ClN3O4S","57394020","1379686-30-2","CCOC(=O)N1CCC(C1)CN(CC2=CC=C(C=C2)Cl)CC3=CC=C(S3)[N+](=O)[O-]",[15286,15287,15288,15289],"Stenabolic","SR-9009","REV-ERB agonist","Rev-ErbA agonist",[15291,15292,15293,15294,15295],"Circadian rhythm","Metabolic regulation","Exercise capacity / endurance","Obesity / dyslipidemia","Skeletal muscle oxidative metabolism",{"human":15297,"animal":15298,"inVitro":15299,"uncertain":15300},"No human clinical trials of SR9009 were found in indexed sources.","In mice, administration of the synthetic REV-ERB agonist SR9009 altered circadian behavior and the circadian pattern of core clock gene expression, increased energy expenditure, and in diet-induced obese mice decreased obesity by reducing fat mass and markedly improving dyslipidaemia and hyperglycaemia (Nature, 2012). Related work showed SR9009 increases exercise capacity and oxidative metabolism in skeletal muscle in mice.","SR9009 was identified as a potent synthetic agonist of the nuclear receptors REV-ERB-α and REV-ERB-β; in cells it suppresses BMAL1 transcription and drives REV-ERB-dependent metabolic gene programs.","Claims of fat burning and endurance benefits in humans are extrapolations from mouse studies; the compound has very poor oral bioavailability and no human safety data, and it is banned by WADA.",[15302,15306],{"finding":15303,"source":15304,"year":1196,"link":15305,"evidenceLevel":50},"Synthetic REV-ERB agonists (including SR9009) altered circadian behavior and clock-gene expression in mice, increased energy expenditure, and in diet-induced obese mice reduced fat mass and improved dyslipidaemia and hyperglycaemia.","Preclinical study (Nature)","https://doi.org/10.1038/nature11030",{"finding":15307,"source":5076,"year":260,"link":15308,"evidenceLevel":50},"Rev-erb-alpha deficiency in mouse muscle reduced mitochondrial content and oxidative function and compromised exercise capacity; in vivo pharmacological activation of Rev-erb-alpha (REV-ERB agonist) increased exercise capacity.","https://doi.org/10.1038/nm.3213","All efficacy data come from rodent studies; there are no human trials, and SR9009 has very poor oral bioavailability (commonly reported ~2%), which limits its practical relevance. Long-term safety is unknown. It is an investigational tool compound, not a peptide, and not approved anywhere.","SR9009 (stenabolic) is a small-molecule agonist of the REV-ERB-α/β nuclear receptors, not a peptide. It suppresses BMAL1 transcription, altering circadian gene expression and metabolic programs (increased energy expenditure, oxidative metabolism). Oral bioavailability is very poor (~2% reported in literature), which is a major practical limitation; typical research use is parenteral.",[15312,15315,15318],{"question":15313,"answer":15314},"Is SR9009 a peptide?","No. SR9009 (stenabolic) is a small-molecule REV-ERB nuclear receptor agonist, often grouped with research peptides/SARMs in fitness markets but chemically unrelated.",{"question":15316,"answer":15317},"Has SR9009 been tested in humans?","No human clinical trials of SR9009 were found; evidence is limited to rodent studies on metabolism, circadian rhythm and exercise capacity.",{"question":15319,"answer":15320},"Why is SR9009 hard to use?","It has very poor oral bioavailability (~2%), so oral dosing is largely ineffective; parenteral dosing is used in research. It is banned by WADA.",{"id":5120,"name":15322,"slug":15323,"description":15324,"fdaApproved":28,"wadaBanned":15,"views":8,"shortDescription":15325,"researchStatus":15326,"dosage":15327,"mechanism":15328,"safetyNote":15329,"athleteWarning":23,"chemicalMakeup":23,"molecularWeight":23,"molecularFormula":23,"sequence":23,"halfLife":15330,"administrationRoute":5863,"benefits":15331,"peptideBenefits":15340,"sideEffects":15345,"peptideSideEffects":15346,"citations":15347,"protocols":15357,"compatiblePeptides":15375,"research":15388,"statsCache":15389,"imageUrl":15390,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"totalMentions":8,"aliases":15391,"researchAreas":15397,"evidence":15401,"keyStudies":15406,"limitations":15415,"pharmacology":15416,"faqs":15417,"lastReviewed":359},"L-Carnitine","l-carnitine","L-Carnitine (levocarnitine) is a naturally occurring amino acid derivative essential for transporting long-chain fatty acids into mitochondria for energy production via beta-oxidation. Synthesized endogenously from lysine and methionine, it plays critical roles in energy metabolism, particularly in high-energy tissues like heart, brain, and skeletal muscle. FDA approved as Carnitor® for treating primary and secondary carnitine deficiency. Various forms exist including Acetyl-L-Carnitine (ALCAR) for cognitive support, L-Carnitine L-Tartrate (LCLT) for exercise recovery, and Propionyl-L-Carnitine for cardiovascular health. Extensively studied with over 200 clinical trials examining effects on weight management, exercise performance, heart health, cognitive function, and male fertility.","L-Carnitine (levocarnitine) is a naturally occurring amino acid derivative essential for transporting long-chain fatty acids into mitochondria for energy production via beta-oxidation.","FDA approved as Carnitor® for primary and secondary carnitine deficiency; widely used supplement","50 mg/kg/day","Injectable L-Carnitine delivers the compound directly to circulation, bypassing the limitations of intestinal absorption. This provides immediate availability for fatty acid transport into mitochondria. IV/IM routes are preferred in clinical settings for carnitine deficiency and dialysis patients.","FDA-approved for specific indications - well-established safety profile. May cause injection site discomfort or temporary warmth. High doses can cause fishy body odor due to TMA production. Use caution in hypothyroidism - may inhibit thyroid hormone action. Monitor if on anticoagulants (warfarin) - may enhance effect. Renal patients should be monitored for TMA/TMAO accumulation.","17 hrs",[15332,15334,15336,15338],{"id":14064,"benefit":15333,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},"Maximum bioavailability (100% vs 14-18% oral)",{"id":14069,"benefit":15335,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},"rapid onset of action",{"id":14074,"benefit":15337,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},"bypasses gut microbiome conversion to TMAO",{"id":14079,"benefit":15339,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},"particularly useful for carnitine deficiency states and clinical settings",[15341,15342,15343,15344],{"id":14064,"benefit":15333,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},{"id":14069,"benefit":15335,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},{"id":14074,"benefit":15337,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},{"id":14079,"benefit":15339,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},[],[],[15348,15351,15354],{"id":15349,"title":15350,"authors":155,"journal":5904,"year":451,"citationType":24,"doi":155,"researchPaperId":23},2147,"Weight Loss Meta-Analysis (2020)",{"id":15352,"title":15353,"authors":155,"journal":5904,"year":260,"citationType":24,"doi":155,"researchPaperId":23},2148,"Cardiovascular Secondary Prevention (2013)",{"id":15355,"title":15356,"authors":155,"journal":5904,"year":465,"citationType":24,"doi":155,"researchPaperId":23},2149,"Exercise Recovery LCLT Study (2021)",[15358,15361,15366,15370],{"name":15359,"dose":15327,"frequency":15360,"route":547},"Carnitine deficiency","Divided doses or continuous",{"name":15362,"dose":15363,"frequency":15364,"route":15365},"Hemodialysis support","10-20 mg/kg","Post-dialysis","IV - Slow push",{"name":15367,"dose":15368,"frequency":15369,"route":1595},"Fat metabolism / Performance","500-1500mg","1-3x weekly",{"name":15371,"dose":15372,"frequency":15373,"route":15374},"Critical illness","Up to 300 mg/kg/day","Divided or continuous","IV - Infusion",[15376,15378,15380,15382,15384,15386],{"slug":15377,"status":5922,"note":23},"coenzyme-q10",{"slug":15379,"status":5922,"note":23},"alpha-lipoic-acid",{"slug":15381,"status":5922,"note":23},"omega-3-fatty-acids",{"slug":15383,"status":6006,"note":6208},"thyroid-hormones",{"slug":15385,"status":6006,"note":6007},"warfarin",{"slug":15387,"status":6006,"note":6007},"acenocoumarol",[],{"totalProtocols":2486,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":8,"researchPaperCount":2222,"lastCalculated":23},"/images/peptides/l-carnitine.svg",[15392,15393,15394,15395,15396],"Levocarnitine","L-3-hydroxy-4-N,N,N-trimethylaminobutyrate","Vitamin BT","Carnitor (brand name)","L-carnitine (INN: levocarnitine)",[15398,15399,405,15400,7078],"Fatty acid metabolism and mitochondrial function","Weight loss and body composition","Primary and secondary carnitine deficiency",{"human":15402,"animal":15403,"inVitro":15404,"uncertain":15405},"A systematic review and meta-analysis of 37 randomized controlled trials with dose-response analysis found that L-carnitine supplementation reduced body weight and improved body composition, with clearer effects at roughly 2 g/day or more. Levocarnitine (Carnitor) is FDA-approved for primary and secondary carnitine deficiency; effects in the general population are modest and heterogeneous.","Rodent studies confirm that carnitine shuttles long-chain fatty acids into mitochondria for beta-oxidation and that supplementation increases fatty acid oxidation in muscle and liver.","Mechanistic studies establish carnitine as an essential cofactor in the CPT-I/CPT-II system that transports long-chain fatty acyl groups across the inner mitochondrial membrane.","Claims of meaningful fat loss or performance enhancement in healthy, well-nourished individuals remain debated; trial effects are small, and some analyses show significant heterogeneity.",[15407,15411],{"finding":15408,"source":15409,"year":451,"link":15410,"evidenceLevel":46},"Meta-analysis of 37 RCTs with dose-response analysis: L-carnitine supplementation significantly reduced body weight, BMI and fat mass, with larger effects at higher (about 2 g/day or more) doses.","Systematic review and meta-analysis of 37 randomized controlled trials (Clinical Nutrition ESPEN)","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32359762/",{"finding":15412,"source":15413,"year":491,"link":15414,"evidenceLevel":46},"Levocarnitine (Carnitor) is FDA-approved for the treatment of primary and secondary carnitine deficiency.","FDA-approved product labeling (DailyMed)","https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=cf801cc4-775e-433d-9d32-e5d9a98981d3","Weight-loss effects in trials are modest and heterogeneous; most trials are short-term; evidence for athletic performance, cognitive, and fatigue claims is mixed; supplementation is not a substitute for treating documented deficiency.","L-carnitine is a quaternary ammonium compound synthesized from lysine and methionine that transports long-chain fatty acids across the mitochondrial membrane for beta-oxidation. Oral bioavailability of high doses is limited (roughly 14-18%), plasma levels peak within hours of dosing, and large stores are maintained in skeletal muscle; trial doses typically range from about 1 to 4 g/day, with dose-response analyses favoring at least 2 g/day for weight-related outcomes.",[15418,15421],{"question":15419,"answer":15420},"Is L-carnitine an approved drug?","Yes, as levocarnitine (Carnitor) it is FDA-approved for primary and secondary carnitine deficiency, but it is not approved for weight loss in the general population.",{"question":15422,"answer":15423},"Does L-carnitine reliably cause weight loss?","Meta-analytic evidence shows a statistically significant but modest effect on weight and body composition, mainly in trials using about 2 g/day or more; individual results vary.",{"id":5117,"name":15425,"slug":15426,"description":15427,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":15,"views":8,"shortDescription":15428,"researchStatus":15429,"dosage":15430,"mechanism":15431,"safetyNote":15432,"athleteWarning":23,"chemicalMakeup":23,"molecularWeight":23,"molecularFormula":23,"sequence":23,"halfLife":15433,"administrationRoute":5863,"benefits":15434,"peptideBenefits":15441,"sideEffects":15445,"peptideSideEffects":15446,"citations":15447,"protocols":15458,"compatiblePeptides":15471,"research":15478,"statsCache":15479,"imageUrl":15480,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"totalMentions":8,"aliases":15481,"researchAreas":15487,"evidence":15490,"keyStudies":15495,"limitations":15496,"pharmacology":15497,"faqs":15498,"lastReviewed":359},"Lipo-C","lipo-c","Lipo-C is a lipotropic injection containing Methionine, Inositol, Choline (MIC), and B vitamins that support fat metabolism and liver function. These nutrients act as methyl donors and lipotropic agents, assisting in the breakdown and transport of fats. While individual components have documented metabolic roles, clinical evidence for the combined injection specifically for weight loss remains limited.","Lipo-C is a lipotropic injection containing Methionine, Inositol, Choline (MIC), and B vitamins that support fat metabolism and liver function.","Compounded injection - not FDA approved; FDA does not regulate compounded injections","1 mL","MIC components act as methyl donors supporting Phase II liver detoxification and lipid transport. Choline prevents hepatic fat accumulation, methionine provides sulfur for glutathione synthesis, and inositol aids cellular signaling. B12 supports methylation pathways. Note: Clinical evidence for weight loss specifically from MIC injections is limited.","IMPORTANT: Clinical evidence for MIC injections specifically causing weight loss is limited. Formulations vary widely between providers - no standardized 'Lipo-C' formula exists. FDA does not regulate these compounded injections for quality, purity, or dosage. Some formulations add medications (semaglutide, phentermine) with their own risks. Choline excess (>3,500mg/day) may cause fishy body odor, sweating, GI upset. Methionine may worsen existing liver disease - contraindicated in advanced hepatic conditions. Requires prescription from licensed healthcare provider. Use only from reputable compounding pharmacies with proper quality controls.","Variable by component; methionine ~3hr, choline ~1hr",[15435,15437,15439],{"id":14084,"benefit":15436,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},"Lipotropic nutrients (methionine, inositol, choline) support liver function and fat metabolism",{"id":14089,"benefit":15438,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},"B vitamins contribute to energy metabolism",{"id":14094,"benefit":15440,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},"Bypasses digestive absorption for direct nutrient delivery",[15442,15443,15444],{"id":14084,"benefit":15436,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},{"id":14089,"benefit":15438,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},{"id":14094,"benefit":15440,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},[],[],[15448,15452,15455],{"id":15449,"title":15450,"authors":155,"journal":15451,"year":23,"citationType":24,"doi":155,"researchPaperId":23},2150,"Choline Deficiency and Fatty Liver - Zeisel et al","PubMed Central",{"id":15453,"title":15454,"authors":155,"journal":5900,"year":478,"citationType":24,"doi":155,"researchPaperId":23},2151,"Myo-Inositol for PCOS - Systematic Review (2023)",{"id":15456,"title":15457,"authors":155,"journal":5900,"year":451,"citationType":24,"doi":155,"researchPaperId":23},2152,"L-Carnitine Weight Loss Meta-Analysis (2020)",[15459,15461,15465,15467],{"name":15460,"dose":15430,"frequency":894,"route":895},"General wellness support",{"name":15462,"dose":15463,"frequency":876,"route":15464},"Weight management program","1-2 mL","IM (clinic) or SubQ (home)",{"name":15466,"dose":15430,"frequency":894,"route":895},"Liver health support",{"name":15468,"dose":15430,"frequency":15469,"route":15470},"Energy support (B12 deficiency)","Weekly initially, then monthly","IM preferred for B12",[15472,15474,15476],{"slug":15473,"status":6006,"note":6007},"b12-supplements",{"slug":15475,"status":6006,"note":6007},"diabetes-medications",{"slug":15477,"status":6006,"note":6208},"maois",[],{"totalProtocols":2486,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":8,"researchPaperCount":2222,"lastCalculated":23},"/images/peptides/lipo-c.svg",[15482,15483,15484,15485,15486],"Lipo-C injection","lipotropic injection","MIC + B12","methionine-inositol-choline with vitamin B12","L-carnitine lipotropic shot",[15488,15489],"Weight management (adjunct, unproven)","Fat metabolism support",{"human":15491,"animal":15492,"inVitro":15493,"uncertain":15494},"No randomized controlled trials of Lipo-C (L-carnitine, methionine, inositol, choline plus vitamin B12) combinations for weight loss were found. 'Fat-burning' claims rest on the biochemistry of lipotropic nutrients and anecdotal clinic reports rather than clinical trial data.","The individual components have mechanistic data in animals (e.g., L-carnitine in fatty-acid oxidation; choline and methionine in hepatic lipid handling), but no studies of the Lipo-C combination itself were found.","Mechanistic and cell-based studies describe roles for L-carnitine in mitochondrial fatty-acid transport and for choline/inositol in lipid metabolism.","Weight-loss claims for Lipo-C remain unproven; marketing materials frequently overstate expected effects, and the combination has not been evaluated in rigorous trials.",[],"Lipo-C is a compounded lipotropic injection (nutrients + B12), not a peptide, and the combination has no rigorous clinical-trial evidence for weight loss. Individual ingredients have limited supporting data, dosing is not standardized, and repeated-injection safety is not well studied.","Typically administered as subcutaneous or intramuscular injection in clinic protocols. Components are water-soluble nutrients (vitamin B12, choline, methionine, inositol, L-carnitine); no standardized pharmacokinetics exist for the combination.",[15499,15502,15505],{"question":15500,"answer":15501},"Is Lipo-C a peptide?","No. It is a combination lipotropic injection (typically L-carnitine, methionine, inositol, choline, and vitamin B12), commonly miscategorized alongside peptide therapies.",{"question":15503,"answer":15504},"Does Lipo-C cause weight loss?","There is no published clinical-trial evidence showing the combination produces clinically meaningful weight loss; effects, if any, are unproven.",{"question":15506,"answer":15507},"Are Lipo-C injections safe?","Components are generally regarded as safe nutrients, but repeated injection protocols are not regulated or standardized, and injection-site reactions and interactions are not well characterized in trials.","https://cbzugwmbrmdvvkvtjpnn.supabase.co/storage/v1/object/public/peptide_category_icons/performance_enhancing.png",{"id":861,"slug":15510,"title":15511,"display_order":8,"peptides":15512,"icon":15513},"performance-muscle","Performance & Muscle",[],"https://cbzugwmbrmdvvkvtjpnn.supabase.co/storage/v1/object/public/peptide_category_icons/sleep.png",{"id":6502,"slug":15515,"title":15516,"display_order":8,"peptides":15517,"icon":15518},"research-peptides","Research Peptides",[],"https://cbzugwmbrmdvvkvtjpnn.supabase.co/storage/v1/object/public/peptide_category_icons/experimental.png",{"id":5369,"slug":15520,"title":15521,"display_order":8,"peptides":15522,"icon":17973},"sexual-wellness","Sexual Wellness",[15523,15755,15958,16167,16517,16591,16664,16743,16914,17148,17366,17687],{"id":6502,"name":15524,"slug":15525,"description":15526,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":15,"views":2286,"researchStatus":15527,"peptideBenefits":15528,"benefits":15537,"peptideSideEffects":15544,"sideEffects":15569,"dosage":15579,"mechanism":15580,"safetyNote":15581,"athleteWarning":15582,"chemicalMakeup":15583,"citations":15584,"research":15686,"statsCache":15687,"imageUrl":15689,"molecularWeight":15690,"halfLife":2228,"administrationRoute":547,"totalMentions":11,"dataCompleteness":6033,"hasResearchData":28,"protocols":15691,"aliases":15715,"researchAreas":15719,"evidence":15725,"keyStudies":15730,"limitations":15743,"pharmacology":15744,"faqs":15745,"lastReviewed":359},"Cerebrolysin","cerebrolysin","Cerebrolysin is a neuropeptide preparation derived from porcine brain tissue containing a mixture of low-molecular-weight peptides and free amino acids with neurotrophic activity. The preparation mimics the action of endogenous neurotrophic factors including brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and nerve growth factor (NGF). Research demonstrates Cerebrolysin enhances neuroplasticity, promotes neurogenesis, reduces oxidative stress, and provides neuroprotection through multiple mechanisms. Clinical trials have evaluated its efficacy in stroke recovery, traumatic brain injury, Alzheimer's disease, and vascular dementia. Studies show improvements in cognitive function, activities of daily living, and global clinical outcomes in various neurological conditions. The preparation is approved in numerous countries, particularly in Europe and Asia, for treatment of stroke and dementia. Cerebrolysin is administered intravenously or intramuscularly and crosses the blood-brain barrier. While clinical evidence supports its use in some conditions, larger confirmatory trials are ongoing. The multimodal mechanism of action distinguishes it from single-target therapeutic approaches.","Prescription medication in some countries",[15529,15530,15532,15533,15535,15536],{"id":11444,"benefit":6120,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":13600,"benefit":15531,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Neuroplasticity",{"id":13606,"benefit":1653,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":13611,"benefit":15534,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Brain injury recovery",{"id":11438,"benefit":957,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":11441,"benefit":1648,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},[15538,15539,15540,15541,15542,15543],{"id":11444,"benefit":6120,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":13600,"benefit":15531,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":13606,"benefit":1653,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":13611,"benefit":15534,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":11438,"benefit":957,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":11441,"benefit":1648,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},[15545,15546,15547,15548,15550,15553,15558,15561,15566],{"id":1922,"sideEffect":125,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":8440,"sideEffect":1280,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":1916,"sideEffect":112,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":8438,"sideEffect":15549,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Agitation",{"id":626,"sideEffect":398,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":5476,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":15551,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":15524,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":10013,"management":15552,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},"pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22514795/","Symptomatic; dose reduction",{"id":629,"sideEffect":398,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":15554,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":15555,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":15524,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":15556,"management":15557,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},"Common (most frequent)","pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12465088/","During/after IV","Slow infusion rate",{"id":10299,"sideEffect":1878,"description":23,"severity":1879,"frequency":15559,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":12131,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":15524,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":11450,"management":15560,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Occasional","Dose adjustment; anxiolytics if severe",{"id":10304,"sideEffect":7466,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":15562,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":15563,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":15524,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":15564,"management":15565,"doseDependent":15,"needsReview":15},"Rare (~35 cases 1994-2009)","onlinelibrary.wiley.com","Minutes-hours","DISCONTINUE; epinephrine, supportive care",{"id":10310,"sideEffect":7466,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":15567,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":15524,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":2228,"management":15568,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4712290/","CONTRAINDICATED in epilepsy",[15570,15571,15572,15573,15574,15575,15576,15577,15578],{"id":1922,"sideEffect":125,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":8440,"sideEffect":1280,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":1916,"sideEffect":112,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":8438,"sideEffect":15549,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":626,"sideEffect":398,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":5476,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":15551,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":15524,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":10013,"management":15552,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},{"id":629,"sideEffect":398,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":15554,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":15555,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":15524,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":15556,"management":15557,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},{"id":10299,"sideEffect":1878,"description":23,"severity":1879,"frequency":15559,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":12131,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":15524,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":11450,"management":15560,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":10304,"sideEffect":7466,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":15562,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":15563,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":15524,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":15564,"management":15565,"doseDependent":15,"needsReview":15},{"id":10310,"sideEffect":7466,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":15567,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":15524,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":2228,"management":15568,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"30 mL 10-21 day course","Neurotrophic peptide mixture for neuroprotection","Prescription medication in many countries. Requires medical supervision.","Not WADA banned - neuroprotective compound safe for competitive athletes","Mixture of low molecular weight neuropeptides and amino acids",[15585,15590,15596,15601,15605,15610,15615,15620,15625,15630,15635,15640,15644,15649,15653,15658,15662,15667,15672,15677,15681],{"id":6267,"title":15586,"authors":155,"journal":15587,"year":437,"citationType":2643,"doi":15588,"researchPaperId":15589},"Cerebrolysin in Stroke Recovery: Updated Meta-analysis","Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience","10.3389/fnagi.2022.1051393","pubmed_36411485",{"id":9527,"title":15591,"authors":155,"journal":15592,"year":451,"citationType":15593,"doi":15594,"researchPaperId":15595},"Cerebrolysin Effects on Cognitive Function in Dementia","Neuroscience Letters","RCT","10.1016/j.neulet.2020.135166","pubmed_32621476",{"id":7144,"title":15597,"authors":15598,"journal":15599,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":15600},"Cerebrolysin for acute ischaemic stroke.","Ziganshina LE, Abakumova T, Nurkhametova D, Ivanchenko K","The Cochrane database of systematic reviews","10.1002/14651858.CD007026.pub7",{"id":373,"title":15602,"authors":15603,"journal":15599,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":15604},"Cerebrolysin for vascular dementia.","Cui S, Chen N, Yang M, Guo J, Zhou M, Zhu C, He L","10.1002/14651858.CD008900.pub3",{"id":375,"title":15606,"authors":15607,"journal":15608,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":15609},"Cerebrolysin: a multi-target drug for recovery after stroke.","Brainin M","Expert review of neurotherapeutics","10.1080/14737175.2018.1500459",{"id":378,"title":15611,"authors":15612,"journal":15613,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":15614},"Cerebrolysin for stroke, neurodegeneration, and traumatic brain injury: review of the literature and outcomes.","Fiani B, Covarrubias C, Wong A, Doan T, Reardon T, Nikolaidis D, Sarno E","Neurological sciences : official journal of the Italian Neurological Society and of the Italian Society of Clinical Neurophysiology","10.1007/s10072-021-05089-2",{"id":381,"title":15616,"authors":15617,"journal":15618,"year":1384,"citationType":167,"doi":15619},"Cerebrolysin: a review of its use in dementia.","Plosker GL, Gauthier S","Drugs & aging","10.2165/11203320-000000000-00000",{"id":383,"title":15621,"authors":15622,"journal":15623,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":15624},"Nanodelivery of cerebrolysin reduces pathophysiology of Parkinson's disease.","Ozkizilcik A, Sharma A, Lafuente JV, Muresanu DF, Castellani RJ, Nozari A, Tian ZR, Mössler H, Sharma HS","Progress in brain research","10.1016/bs.pbr.2019.03.014",{"id":385,"title":15626,"authors":15627,"journal":15628,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":15629},"Cerebrolysin in the therapy of mild cognitive impairment and dementia due to Alzheimer's disease: 30 years of clinical use.","Gavrilova SI, Alvarez A","Medicinal research reviews","10.1002/med.21722",{"id":3004,"title":15631,"authors":15632,"journal":15633,"year":260,"citationType":167,"doi":15634},"[Cerebrolysin for acute ischemic stroke].","iganshina LE, Abakumova TR","Vestnik Rossiiskoi akademii meditsinskikh nauk","10.15690/vramn.v68i1.533",{"id":3006,"title":15636,"authors":15637,"journal":15638,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":15639},"[Cerebrolysin peptides as mood stabilizers].","Torshin IY, Gromova OA, Zgoda VG, Tikhonova OV, Malyavskaya SI","Zhurnal nevrologii i psikhiatrii imeni S.S. Korsakova","10.17116/jnevro201911912169",{"id":2604,"title":15641,"authors":15642,"journal":2165,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":15643},"Cerebrolysin induces hair repigmentation associated to MART-1/Melan-A reactivation.","Villarreal-Reyna G, Garza-Morales R, Soto-Domínguez A, Montañez-Guerrero L, Saucedo-Cárdenas O, Gómez-Flores M, Ocampo-Garza JA, Pérez-Trujillo JJ, Montes-de-Oca-Luna R","10.1186/s40001-022-00889-4",{"id":2606,"title":15645,"authors":15646,"journal":15647,"year":1196,"citationType":167,"doi":15648},"Cerebrolysin improves symptoms and delays progression in patients with Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia.","Allegri RF, Guekht A","Drugs of today (Barcelona, Spain : 1998)","10.1358/dot.2012.48(Suppl.A).1739721",{"id":3013,"title":15650,"authors":15651,"journal":15638,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":15652},"[Cerebrolysin in the treatment of cognitive impairment].","Bogolepova AN","10.17116/jnevro202312303120",{"id":3016,"title":15654,"authors":15655,"journal":15656,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":15657},"Neuroprotective strategies of cerebrolysin for the treatment of infants with neonatal hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy.","Fiani B, Chacon D, Jarrah R, Barthelmass M, Covarrubias C","Acta neurologica Belgica","10.1007/s13760-021-01795-y",{"id":632,"title":15659,"authors":15660,"journal":15623,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":15661},"Nanowired delivery of cerebrolysin with neprilysin and p-Tau antibodies induces superior neuroprotection in Alzheimer's disease.","Sharma HS, Muresanu DF, Castellani RJ, Nozari A, Lafuente JV, Tian ZR, Ozkizilcik A, Manzhulo I, Mössler H, Sharma A","10.1016/bs.pbr.2019.03.009",{"id":635,"title":15663,"authors":15664,"journal":15665,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":15666},"Cerebrolysin reduces excitotoxicity by modulation of cell-death proteins in delayed hours of ischemic reperfusion injury.","Sarode LP, Ghatage T, Mardhekar V, Verma B, Prakash A, Ugale RR","Metabolic brain disease","10.1007/s11011-023-01240-4",{"id":638,"title":15668,"authors":15669,"journal":15670,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":15671},"Nanowired Delivery of Cerebrolysin Together with Antibodies to Amyloid Beta Peptide, Phosphorylated Tau, and Tumor Necrosis Factor Alpha Induces Superior Neuroprotection in Alzheimer's Disease Brain Pathology Exacerbated by Sleep Deprivation.","Sharma A, Feng L, Muresanu DF, Tian ZR, Lafuente JV, Buzoianu AD, Nozari A, Bryukhovetskiy I, Manzhulo I, Wiklund L, Sharma HS","Advances in neurobiology","10.1007/978-3-031-32997-5_1",{"id":641,"title":15673,"authors":15674,"journal":15675,"year":1196,"citationType":167,"doi":15676},"Cerebrolysin, a mixture of neurotrophic factors induces marked neuroprotection in spinal cord injury following intoxication of engineered nanoparticles from metals.","Menon PK, Muresanu DF, Sharma A, Mössler H, Sharma HS","CNS & neurological disorders drug targets","10.2174/187152712799960781",{"id":643,"title":15678,"authors":15679,"journal":15628,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":15680},"Modulation of neurotrophic factors in the treatment of dementia, stroke and TBI: Effects of Cerebrolysin.","Rejdak K, Sienkiewicz-Jarosz H, Bienkowski P, Alvarez A","10.1002/med.21960",{"id":645,"title":15682,"authors":15683,"journal":15684,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":15685},"Therapeutic effect of Cerebrolysin on reducing impaired cerebral endothelial cell permeability.","Teng H, Li C, Zhang Y, Lu M, Chopp M, Zhang ZG, Melcher-Mourgas M, Fleckenstein B","Neuroreport","10.1097/WNR.0000000000001598",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":11,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":15688},"2026-01-05T22:12:15.868716","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/cerebrolysin.avif","2000.00",[15692,15696,15700,15705,15708,15713],{"name":15693,"dose":15694,"frequency":1801,"route":15695},"Small Volume IV","Up to 10 mL","Undiluted IV slow push over 3 minutes",{"name":15697,"dose":15698,"frequency":1801,"route":15699},"Intramuscular (Lower Doses)","Up to 5 mL","Undiluted IM injection over 3 minutes",{"name":15701,"dose":15702,"frequency":15703,"route":15704},"Acute Stroke","20-50 mL","Once daily for 10-21 days","IV infusion (diluted to 100mL minimum)",{"name":15706,"dose":15702,"frequency":15707,"route":15704},"Traumatic Brain Injury","Once daily for 7-30 days",{"name":15709,"dose":15710,"frequency":15711,"route":15712},"Alzheimer's Disease","10-30 mL","5 days weekly for 4 weeks","IV injection/infusion (2-4 cycles yearly)",{"name":15714,"dose":15710,"frequency":15711,"route":15712},"Vascular Dementia",[15524,15716,15717,15718],"FPE-1071","porcine brain-derived peptide preparation","cerebrolysin (brain peptide preparation)",[15720,15721,15722,15723,15724],"Acute ischemic stroke","Alzheimer's disease","Vascular dementia","Traumatic brain injury","Neurorehabilitation",{"human":15726,"animal":15727,"inVitro":15728,"uncertain":15729},"Cerebrolysin has been evaluated in multiple randomized trials in acute ischemic stroke and dementia. The large CASTA trial in Asian stroke patients found no significant overall benefit on its primary endpoint, though a predefined subgroup analysis suggested improvement in moderate stroke. In Alzheimer's disease, randomized trials report cognitive and global improvements versus placebo, including when added to donepezil, but results are heterogeneous and the drug is not FDA approved.","Animal models of stroke and traumatic brain injury show neurotrophic and neuroprotective effects of Cerebrolysin, including reduced infarct volume and enhanced neurogenesis and synaptic plasticity.","In vitro studies demonstrate neurotrophic factor-like activity and protection of cultured neurons against excitotoxicity and oxidative stress, attributed to the preparation's peptides and amino acids.","Whether Cerebrolysin's modest trial signals translate into meaningful long-term functional gains is debated; regulatory status varies by country and it is marketed mainly outside the United States.",[15731,15735,15739],{"finding":15732,"source":15733,"year":1196,"link":15734,"evidenceLevel":46},"In the CASTA double-blind RCT in ~1,070 Asian patients with acute ischemic stroke, Cerebrolysin showed no significant benefit on the primary endpoint versus placebo, though subgroup analysis suggested improvement in patients with moderate stroke.","Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial (Stroke, CASTA)","https://doi.org/10.1161/STROKEAHA.111.628537",{"finding":15736,"source":15737,"year":1122,"link":15738,"evidenceLevel":46},"A randomized, controlled trial found that adding Cerebrolysin to donepezil improved outcomes in Alzheimer's disease patients versus donepezil alone.","Randomized, controlled trial (Current Alzheimer Research)","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21679156/",{"finding":15740,"source":15741,"year":451,"link":15742,"evidenceLevel":46},"A Cochrane systematic review of Cerebrolysin for acute ischemic stroke concluded that evidence for benefit is limited and of low certainty, with most trials at risk of bias.","Cochrane systematic review","https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD007026.pub5","Trial results are mixed: the largest stroke trial (CASTA) missed its primary endpoint, dementia trials show modest effect sizes, and a Cochrane review rates the stroke evidence as low certainty. Cerebrolysin is not FDA approved and is a heterogeneous biological preparation, which complicates standardization and independent replication.","Cerebrolysin is a porcine brain-derived preparation of low-molecular-weight peptides and free amino acids, including neurotrophic peptide fragments. It is given by intravenous infusion or intramuscular injection in multi-day courses; as a complex biological mixture it has no single defined half-life.",[15746,15749,15752],{"question":15747,"answer":15748},"Is Cerebrolysin FDA approved?","No. Cerebrolysin is approved in some countries outside the US (e.g., parts of Europe, Russia, China) for stroke and dementia, but it has not been approved by the FDA.",{"question":15750,"answer":15751},"Does Cerebrolysin work for stroke recovery?","Evidence is mixed. The large CASTA trial found no significant overall benefit on its primary endpoint, though subgroup analysis suggested benefit in moderate stroke, and a Cochrane review considers the evidence low certainty.",{"question":15753,"answer":15754},"How is Cerebrolysin administered?","Typically by intravenous infusion or intramuscular injection in repeated courses; it is a porcine brain-derived peptide/amino acid mixture, so dosing follows study protocols or local approvals.",{"id":6264,"name":15756,"slug":15757,"description":15758,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":15,"views":4284,"shortDescription":15759,"peptideBenefits":15760,"benefits":15774,"peptideSideEffects":15780,"sideEffects":15785,"dosage":15789,"mechanism":15790,"safetyNote":15791,"citations":15792,"research":15921,"statsCache":15922,"imageUrl":15924,"molecularWeight":15925,"sequence":15926,"halfLife":15927,"totalMentions":532,"dataCompleteness":1916,"hasResearchData":28,"aliases":15928,"researchAreas":15932,"evidence":15937,"keyStudies":15941,"limitations":15949,"pharmacology":15950,"faqs":15951,"lastReviewed":359},"Cortexin","cortexin","Cortexin is a neuropeptide complex extracted from cattle brain cortex containing low-molecular-weight peptides and amino acids with neurotrophic and neuroprotective properties. Used extensively in Russia and Eastern European countries, Cortexin is approved for treatment of various neurological conditions including stroke, traumatic brain injury, encephalopathy, and cognitive disorders. Research demonstrates the preparation supports neuronal metabolism, reduces neuroinflammation, modulates neurotransmitter balance, and promotes functional recovery after brain injury. Clinical studies show improvements in cognitive function, memory, attention, and neurological recovery in various patient populations. The peptide complex is administered intramuscularly and is proposed to cross the blood-brain barrier to exert central effects. Cortexin contains multiple bioactive components that may act synergistically on neuronal tissue. While widely used clinically in some countries, the preparation lacks large-scale randomized controlled trials meeting Western regulatory standards. Research continues into its mechanisms of action and potential applications for neurodegenerative diseases and age-related cognitive decline.","Brain peptide complex for neuroprotection and cognitive enhancement",[15761,15764,15767,15769,15771],{"id":15762,"benefit":957,"benefitCategory":15763,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},401,"Cognitive",{"id":15765,"benefit":15766,"benefitCategory":15763,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},402,"Stroke recovery support",{"id":15768,"benefit":1648,"benefitCategory":15763,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},403,{"id":15770,"benefit":1653,"benefitCategory":15763,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},404,{"id":15772,"benefit":15773,"benefitCategory":15763,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},405,"Neurological function stabilization",[15775,15776,15777,15778,15779],{"id":15762,"benefit":957,"benefitCategory":15763,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":15765,"benefit":15766,"benefitCategory":15763,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":15768,"benefit":1648,"benefitCategory":15763,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":15770,"benefit":1653,"benefitCategory":15763,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":15772,"benefit":15773,"benefitCategory":15763,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},[15781,15782,15784],{"id":13766,"sideEffect":1900,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":5477,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":13769,"sideEffect":15783,"description":23,"severity":1669,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Allergic reactions (rare)",{"id":13772,"sideEffect":669,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":5476,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},[15786,15787,15788],{"id":13766,"sideEffect":1900,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":5477,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":13769,"sideEffect":15783,"description":23,"severity":1669,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":13772,"sideEffect":669,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":5476,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"10-20mg per day, 5-10 days","Neuroprotective brain peptide complex for cognitive enhancement","Approved in Russia for neurological conditions. NOT FDA approved. Research compound elsewhere.",[15793,15798,15802,15806,15810,15814,15818,15824,15829,15835,15840,15845,15850,15855,15860,15866,15871,15876,15881,15887,15891,15896,15901,15906,15911,15916],{"id":5853,"title":15794,"authors":155,"journal":15795,"year":498,"citationType":1024,"doi":15796,"researchPaperId":15797},"Cortexin in Neurological Disorders: Clinical Evidence","Neuroscience and Behavioral Physiology","10.1007/s11055-017-0398-3","pubmed_28251948",{"id":14029,"title":15799,"authors":15800,"journal":15638,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":15801},"[Cortexin. Molecular mechanisms and targets of neuroprotective activity].","Gomazkov OA","10.17116/jnevro20151158199-104",{"id":4344,"title":15803,"authors":15804,"journal":12206,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":15805},"Cortexin® Ameliorates High Glucose-Induced Neuropathy in Cultured Rat Sensory Neurons.","Yazar U, Ayar A","10.1159/000530766",{"id":4348,"title":15807,"authors":15808,"journal":5697,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":15809},"Cortexin modulates OPG/RANK/RANKL and TRPC1 expression in cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury.","Guven C, Türk A, Koçak S, Zencirci B, Yalcin A, Aydın H, Doğukan M","10.1080/01616412.2025.2536075",{"id":4351,"title":15811,"authors":15812,"journal":15813,"year":249,"citationType":167},"[Influence of cortexin on memory and attention].","Tsyganov VN, Bogoslovskiĭ MM","Voenno-meditsinskii zhurnal",{"id":4354,"title":15815,"authors":15816,"journal":1990,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":15817},"Neuroprotective action of Cortexin, Cerebrolysin and Actovegin in acute or chronic brain ischemia in rats.","Kurkin DV, Bakulin DA, Morkovin EI, Kalatanova AV, Makarenko IE, Dorotenko AR, Kovalev NS, Dubrovina MA, Verkholyak DV, Abrosimova EE, Smirnov AV, Shmidt MV, Tyurenkov IN","10.1371/journal.pone.0254493",{"id":15819,"title":15820,"authors":15821,"journal":15822,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":15823},417,"[Peptide drug cortexin inhibits brain caspase-8].","Yakovlev AA, Lyzhin AA, Khaspekov LG, Guekht AB, Gulyaeva NV","Biomeditsinskaia khimiia","10.18097/PBMC2017630127",{"id":15825,"title":15826,"authors":15827,"journal":15638,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":15828},418,"[Cortexin administration due to improvement of cognitive and behavioral disorders in children and teenagers with epilepsy].","V Kalmykova G, Chefranova ZY, Rybnikova VF, Zubova KO","10.17116/jnevro2021121031127",{"id":15830,"title":15831,"authors":15832,"journal":15833,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":15834},419,"Efficacy of Cortexin and Methylprednisolone on Traumatic Facial Nerve Paralysis.","Tunçcan T, Yalçın Ş, Demir CF, Akın MM, Karlıdağ T, Keleş E, Kaygusuz İ","The journal of international advanced otology","10.5152/iao.2016.1166",{"id":15836,"title":15837,"authors":15838,"journal":15833,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":15839},420,"The Protective Effect of Cortexin on Cisplatin-Induced Ototoxicity.","Eroğlu O, Karlıdağ T, Kuloğlu T, Keleş E, Kaygusuz İ, Yalçın Ş","10.5152/iao.2017.3825",{"id":15841,"title":15842,"authors":15843,"journal":15638,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":15844},421,"[Antioxidant effect of cortexin, cerebrolysin and actovegin in rats with chronic cerebrovascular insufficiency].","Kurkin DV, Morkovin EI, Kalatanova AV, Bakulin DA, Verholyak DV, Kovalev NS, Dubrovina MA, Tyurenkov IN, Petrov VI","10.17116/jnevro202112107184",{"id":15846,"title":15847,"authors":15848,"journal":4475,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":15849},422,"Neurotropic Effects of Cortexin on Models of Mental and Physical Developmental Delay.","Kurkin DV, Bakulin DA, Morkovin EI, Petrov VI, Strygin AV, Smirnov AV, Shmidt MV, Gorbunova JV, Kolosov YA, Ivanova OV, Krysanov IS, Dzhavakhyan MA, Zaborovsky AV, Saparova VB, Makarenko IE, Drai RI, Lugovik IA, Verlov NA, Burdakov VS","10.3390/biomedicines13040860",{"id":15851,"title":15852,"authors":15853,"journal":15638,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":15854},423,"[Results of a multicenter observational program to evaluate the effectiveness of complex therapy of patients with chronic cerebrovascular pathology with cognitive impairment with Cortexin and Neuromexol (CORNELia study)].","Mashin VV, Belova LA, Kotova EY, Dolgova DR, Statenina AP, Belyaeva YK, Dergacheva AS, Israfilova RR","10.17116/jnevro202312312134",{"id":15856,"title":15857,"authors":15858,"journal":15859,"year":437,"citationType":167},424,"Role of aspirin activated nitric oxide synthase in controlling DOCA-salt-induced hypertension in rats through the stimulation of renal r-cortexin in kidney cortex cells.","Maji UK, Ghosh TK, Chatterjee M, Bhattacharya S, Bank S, Jana P","International journal of health sciences",{"id":15861,"title":15862,"authors":15863,"journal":15864,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":15865},425,"Determination of the Prevalence of Postcovid Syndrome and Assessment of the Effectiveness of the Drug Cortexin in the Treatment of Neurological Disorders in Patients with Postcovid Syndrome. Results of the CORTEX Multicenter Clinical and Epidemiological Observational Program.","Putilina MV, Mutovina ZY, Kurushina OV, Khalilova DM, Saverskaya EN, Stepanova SB, Khoreva MA, Starikov AS","Neuroscience and behavioral physiology","10.1007/s11055-022-01307-2",{"id":15867,"title":15868,"authors":15869,"journal":15638,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":15870},426,"[Efficacy of cortexin in acute and recovery periodes of hemispheric ischemic stroke].","Belova LA, Mashin VV, Abramova VV, Proshin AN, Ovsjannikova AN","10.17116/jnevro201611610138-42",{"id":15872,"title":15873,"authors":15874,"journal":15638,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":15875},427,"[The effectiveness of rehabilitation measures using the drug Cortexin in children with neuropsychiatric pathology].","Degtyareva VG, Drobyshev VA, Poteryaeva EL","10.17116/jnevro202412412186",{"id":15877,"title":15878,"authors":15879,"journal":15638,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":15880},428,"[Dose-dependent effects of cortexin in chronic cerebral ischemia (results of a multicenter randomized controlled study)].","Fedin AI, Belskaya GN, Kurushina OV, Kovalchuk VV, Starych EV, Chichanovskaya LV, Baranova OA","10.17116/jnevro201811809135",{"id":15882,"title":15883,"authors":15884,"journal":15885,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":15886},429,"Role of Acetyl Salicylic Acid in Controlling the DOCA-Salt Induced Hypertension in Rats by Stimulating the Synthesis of r-Cortexin in the Kidney.","Maji UK, Jana P, Chatterjee M, Karmakar S, Saha A, Ghosh TK","High blood pressure & cardiovascular prevention : the official journal of the Italian Society of Hypertension","10.1007/s40292-017-0241-0",{"id":15888,"title":15889,"authors":15863,"journal":15638,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":15890},430,"[Determination of the prevalence of postcovid syndrome and assessment of the effectiveness of the drug Cortexin in the treatment of neurological disorders in patients with postcovid syndrome. Results of the multicenter clinical and epidemiological observational program CORTEX].","10.17116/jnevro202212201184",{"id":15892,"title":15893,"authors":15894,"journal":15638,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":15895},431,"[Molecular mechanisms of brain peptide-containing drugs: cortexin].","Gulyaeva NV","10.17116/jnevro201811810193",{"id":15897,"title":15898,"authors":15899,"journal":165,"year":290,"citationType":167,"doi":15900},432,"Comparison of behavioral effects of cortexin and cerebrolysin injected into brain ventricles.","Shabanov PD, Lebedev AA, Stetsenko VP, Lavrov NV, Markov SV, Vojeikov IV","10.1007/s10517-007-0150-7",{"id":15902,"title":15903,"authors":15904,"journal":15638,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":15905},433,"[Results of a multicenter study on the efficacy of cortexin in treatment of cognitive dysfunction in children].","Zykov VP, Serebrennikova EB, Panchenko TN, Sycheva YB, Presnyakova SN, Mazur EL, Salova MN, Golubeva ES, Khromova SK","10.17116/jnevro20181183127-31",{"id":15907,"title":15908,"authors":15909,"journal":15638,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":15910},434,"[Comparison of the efficacy of Cellex and Cortexin in patients in the early recovery period of ischemic stroke].","Khabirov FA, Khaibullin TI, Granatov EV, Akhmetova GI, Akhmetzyanov NM","10.17116/jnevro202012012211",{"id":15912,"title":15913,"authors":15914,"journal":15638,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":15915},435,"[Disorders of social cognition in children].","Chutko LS, Surushkina SY, Yakovenko EA","10.17116/jnevro202312301134",{"id":15917,"title":15918,"authors":15919,"journal":165,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":15920},436,"Otoprotective Effect of Cortexin, Cogitum, and Elkar Administered Simultaneously with Netromycin in the Experiment.","D'yakonova IN, Ishanova YS, Rakhmanova IV","10.1007/s10517-020-04908-4",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":532,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":15923},"2026-01-05T22:12:15.312554","/images/peptides/cortexin.svg","2.3","MDGGQPIPSSLVPLGNESADSSMSLEQKMTFVFVILLFIFLGILIVRCFRILLDPYRSMPTSTWADGLEGLEKGQFDHALA","Variable (neuropeptide mixture)",[15929,15930,15931],"Кортексин","Polypeptide preparation of mammalian brain cortex","Bovine cortex polypeptide complex",[15933,15934,15935,15936],"Neuroprotection and neurorehabilitation","Pediatric cerebral palsy rehabilitation","Cognitive recovery after brain injury","Nootropic effects",{"human":15938,"animal":15939,"inVitro":23,"uncertain":15940},"Cortexin is a registered drug in Russia and several former-USSR countries. Small randomized trials (mostly Russian-language) report benefit as part of rehabilitation in children with cerebral palsy and as a neuroprotective adjunct; large Western-standard trials are lacking.","Preclinical studies report neuroprotective, antioxidant and neurotrophic-like effects in animal models of brain injury.","Mechanism of action is poorly characterized (heterogeneous peptide mixture); English-language evidence is sparse and dosing regimens vary by local practice.",[15942,15946],{"finding":15943,"source":15944,"year":1196,"link":15945,"evidenceLevel":46},"Randomized trial found that reflexology combined with neuroprotective treatment (including Cortexin) improved outcomes in children with the hemiparetic form of cerebral palsy.","Randomized controlled trial (Russian-language, PubMed-indexed)","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23011423/",{"finding":15947,"source":15944,"year":260,"link":15948,"evidenceLevel":46},"Randomized study reported changes in brain electrical activity in children with cerebral palsy during complex rehabilitation including Cortexin.","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23250594/","Small sample sizes; publications are mostly Russian-language with limited independent replication; Cortexin is a complex, incompletely characterized peptide mixture with manufacturing standardization questions; no robust Western clinical trials; pharmacokinetic documentation is poor.","Administered intramuscularly as a registered Russian drug. It is a complex of low-molecular-weight polypeptides isolated from mammalian (bovine/pig) cerebral cortex. Pharmacokinetic data (half-life, bioavailability) are not well documented in accessible literature.",[15952,15955],{"question":15953,"answer":15954},"Is Cortexin FDA-approved?","No. It is registered as a pharmaceutical in Russia and some other countries, but not approved by the FDA.",{"question":15956,"answer":15957},"What is Cortexin made of?","A complex of low-molecular-weight polypeptides extracted from mammalian brain cortex tissue.",{"id":861,"name":15959,"slug":6207,"description":15960,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":15,"views":5144,"researchStatus":15961,"peptideBenefits":15962,"benefits":15988,"peptideSideEffects":16002,"sideEffects":16009,"dosage":16014,"mechanism":16015,"safetyNote":16016,"athleteWarning":16017,"chemicalMakeup":16018,"citations":16019,"research":16107,"statsCache":16108,"imageUrl":16110,"molecularWeight":16111,"molecularFormula":16112,"pubchemId":16113,"halfLife":16114,"administrationRoute":16115,"casNumber":16116,"totalMentions":5369,"dataCompleteness":1916,"hasResearchData":28,"protocols":16117,"aliases":16132,"researchAreas":16136,"evidence":16141,"keyStudies":16146,"limitations":16155,"pharmacology":16156,"faqs":16157,"lastReviewed":359},"Dihexa","Dihexa (N-hexanoic-Tyr-Ile-(6) aminohexanoic amide) is a synthetic peptide derivative of angiotensin IV developed for its potent cognitive-enhancing properties. Research demonstrates Dihexa acts as a hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) mimetic, binding to the c-Met receptor and activating downstream signaling pathways involved in neuroplasticity and synaptogenesis. Studies indicate Dihexa is approximately seven orders of magnitude more potent than BDNF in promoting dendritic spinogenesis and synaptic connectivity. Animal research shows improvements in spatial learning, memory consolidation, and reversal of cognitive deficits in models of Alzheimer's disease and age-related cognitive decline. The peptide crosses the blood-brain barrier and can be administered orally or intranasally. Research suggests potential applications for neurodegenerative diseases, traumatic brain injury, and age-related cognitive impairment. Dihexa has demonstrated procognitive effects in multiple preclinical models, though human clinical trials have not yet been conducted. The unique HGF/c-Met mechanism distinguishes it from other nootropic peptides.","Research compound - Cognitive enhancer",[15963,15965,15966,15968,15970,15972,15973,15976,15979,15982,15985,15986,15987],{"id":13552,"benefit":15964,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Potent cognitive enhancement",{"id":13554,"benefit":1653,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":13556,"benefit":15967,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Neurogenesis",{"id":13549,"benefit":15969,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Synaptogenesis",{"id":13634,"benefit":15971,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Learning enhancement",{"id":13640,"benefit":957,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":13131,"benefit":15974,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":15975,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},"Neuroplasticity: Induces synaptogenesis via HGF/c-Met pathway","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25649658/",{"id":15977,"benefit":15978,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},749,"Improves cognitive function",{"id":15980,"benefit":15981,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},750,"Helps with Alzheimer's and Parkinson's",{"id":15983,"benefit":15984,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},751,"Promotes formation of new synapses.",{"id":4627,"benefit":15978,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},{"id":10660,"benefit":15981,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},{"id":10666,"benefit":15984,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},[15989,15990,15991,15992,15993,15994,15995,15996,15997,15998,15999,16000,16001],{"id":13552,"benefit":15964,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":13554,"benefit":1653,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":13556,"benefit":15967,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":13549,"benefit":15969,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":13634,"benefit":15971,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":13640,"benefit":957,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":13131,"benefit":15974,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":15975,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":15977,"benefit":15978,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},{"id":15980,"benefit":15981,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},{"id":15983,"benefit":15984,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},{"id":4627,"benefit":15978,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},{"id":10660,"benefit":15981,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},{"id":10666,"benefit":15984,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},[16003,16004,16006,16007],{"id":8442,"sideEffect":983,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":4380,"sideEffect":16005,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Potential overstimulation",{"id":305,"sideEffect":112,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":4386,"sideEffect":16008,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Unknown long-term effects",[16010,16011,16012,16013],{"id":8442,"sideEffect":983,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":4380,"sideEffect":16005,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":305,"sideEffect":112,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":4386,"sideEffect":16008,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"2-10mg daily","Potent cognitive enhancer via HGF/c-Met system","Research compound only. Very limited human safety data. Extremely potent.","Not WADA banned - cognitive enhancer not currently prohibited for competitive athletes","Oligopeptide, HGF/c-Met receptor agonist",[16020,16025,16031,16036,16042,16047,16051,16055,16060,16065,16070,16075,16080,16085,16090,16094,16098,16103],{"id":12720,"title":16021,"authors":155,"journal":16022,"year":458,"citationType":430,"doi":16023,"researchPaperId":16024},"Dihexa: HGF/MET Agonist for Cognitive Enhancement","Neuropharmacology","10.1016/j.neuropharm.2024.109934","pubmed_38924567",{"id":16026,"title":16027,"authors":16028,"journal":16029,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":16030},437,"AngIV-Analog Dihexa Rescues Cognitive Impairment and Recovers Memory in the APP/PS1 Mouse via the PI3K/AKT Signaling Pathway.","Sun X, Deng Y, Fu X, Wang S, Duan R, Zhang Y","Brain sciences","10.3390/brainsci11111487",{"id":16032,"title":16033,"authors":16034,"journal":2104,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":16035},438,"Hepatocyte growth factor mimetic protects lateral line hair cells from aminoglycoside exposure.","Uribe PM, Kawas LH, Harding JW, Coffin AB","10.3389/fncel.2015.00003",{"id":16037,"title":16038,"authors":16039,"journal":16040,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":16041},439,"Stem cell, Granulocyte-Colony Stimulating Factor and/or Dihexa to promote limb function recovery in a rat sciatic nerve damage-repair model: Experimental animal studies.","Weiss JB, Phillips CJ, Malin EW, Gorantla VS, Harding JW, Salgar SK","Annals of medicine and surgery (2012)","10.1016/j.amsu.2021.102917",{"id":14842,"title":16043,"authors":16044,"journal":16045,"year":290,"citationType":167,"doi":16046},"Dimeric DOTA-alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone analogs: synthesis and in vivo characteristics of radiopeptides with high in vitro activity.","Bapst JP, Froidevaux S, Calame M, Tanner H, Eberle AN","Journal of receptor and signal transduction research","10.1080/10799890701723528",{"id":14846,"title":16048,"authors":16049,"journal":4246,"year":1152,"citationType":167,"doi":16050},"The procognitive and synaptogenic effects of angiotensin IV-derived peptides are dependent on activation of the hepatocyte growth factor/c-met system.","Benoist CC, Kawas LH, Zhu M, Tyson KA, Stillmaker L, Appleyard SM, Wright JW, Wayman GA, Harding JW","10.1124/jpet.114.218735",{"id":14849,"title":16052,"authors":16053,"journal":1121,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":16054},"The Brain Hepatocyte Growth Factor/c-Met Receptor System: A New Target for the Treatment of Alzheimer's Disease.","Wright JW, Harding JW","10.3233/JAD-142814",{"id":14851,"title":16056,"authors":16057,"journal":16058,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":16059},"Small-Molecule-Directed Hepatocyte-Like Cell Differentiation of Human Pluripotent Stem Cells.","Mathapati S, Siller R, Impellizzeri AA, Lycke M, Vegheim K, Almaas R, Sullivan GJ","Current protocols in stem cell biology","10.1002/cpsc.13",{"id":16061,"title":16062,"authors":16063,"journal":5546,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":16064},444,"Cognitive benefits of angiotensin IV and angiotensin-(1-7): A systematic review of experimental studies.","Ho JK, Nation DA","10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.05.005",{"id":16066,"title":16067,"authors":16068,"journal":4246,"year":260,"citationType":167,"doi":16069},445,"Evaluation of metabolically stabilized angiotensin IV analogs as procognitive/antidementia agents.","McCoy AT, Benoist CC, Wright JW, Kawas LH, Bule-Ghogare JM, Zhu M, Appleyard SM, Wayman GA, Harding JW","10.1124/jpet.112.199497",{"id":16071,"title":16072,"authors":16073,"journal":13685,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":16074},446,"Efficiently generate functional hepatic cells from human pluripotent stem cells by complete small-molecule strategy.","Pan T, Wang N, Zhang J, Yang F, Chen Y, Zhuang Y, Xu Y, Fang J, You K, Lin X, Li Y, Li S, Liang K, Li YX, Gao Y","10.1186/s13287-022-02831-1",{"id":16076,"title":16077,"authors":16078,"journal":14126,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":16079},447,"The development of small molecule angiotensin IV analogs to treat Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases.","Wright JW, Kawas LH, Harding JW","10.1016/j.pneurobio.2014.11.004",{"id":7443,"title":16081,"authors":16082,"journal":16083,"year":243,"citationType":167,"doi":16084},"Studies on the subcellular localization of the porphycene CPO.","Kessel D, Conley M, Vicente MG, Reiners JJ","Photochemistry and photobiology","10.1562/2004-12-16-RA-403",{"id":7447,"title":16086,"authors":16087,"journal":16088,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":16089},"Effects of an Angiotensin IV Analog on 3-Nitropropionic Acid-Induced Huntington's Disease-Like Symptoms in Rats.","Wells RG, Azzam AF, Hiller AL, Sardinia MF","Journal of Huntington's disease","10.3233/JHD-231507",{"id":5015,"title":16091,"authors":16092,"journal":6546,"year":920,"citationType":167,"doi":16093},"Localization of alveolar surfactant clearance in rabbit lung cells.","Rider ED, Ikegami M, Jobe AH","10.1152/ajplung.1992.263.2.L201",{"id":5019,"title":16095,"authors":16096,"journal":1754,"year":1152,"citationType":167,"doi":16097},"Effect of structure on the interactions between five natural antimicrobial compounds and phospholipids of bacterial cell membrane on model monolayers.","Nowotarska SW, Nowotarski KJ, Friedman M, Situ C","10.3390/molecules19067497",{"id":5022,"title":16099,"authors":16100,"journal":16101,"year":1152,"citationType":167,"doi":16102},"Phase segregation of polymerizable lipids to construct filters for separating lipid-membrane-embedded species.","Hu SK, Chen YM, Chao L","Biomicrofluidics","10.1063/1.4895570",{"id":5026,"title":16104,"authors":16105,"journal":5205,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":16106},"Small-molecule-driven hepatocyte differentiation of human pluripotent stem cells.","Siller R, Greenhough S, Naumovska E, Sullivan GJ","10.1016/j.stemcr.2015.04.001",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":5369,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":16109},"2026-01-05T22:12:14.439590","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/dihexa.webp","504.66","C27H44N4O5","11178193","12 hours","Oral/SC","1401708-83-5",[16118,16122,16124,16126,16130],{"name":16119,"dose":16120,"frequency":3989,"route":16121},"Research-Based Injectable","0.5mg/kg","IP/SubQ",{"name":1585,"dose":16123,"frequency":5911,"route":4541},"8-10mg",{"name":16125,"dose":7395,"frequency":3989,"route":4541},"Intensive Learning",{"name":957,"dose":16127,"frequency":16128,"route":16129},"5-8mg","Daily or 3x weekly","Oral or SubQ",{"name":892,"dose":7398,"frequency":16131,"route":4541},"Every other day",[16133,16134,16135],"PNB-0408","N-hexanoic-Tyr-Ile-(6)aminohexanoic amide","Angiotensin IV analog",[16137,16138,16139,16140],"Cognitive enhancement / nootropics","Alzheimer's disease models","Synaptogenesis and synaptic plasticity","HGF/c-Met signaling",{"human":16142,"animal":16143,"inVitro":16144,"uncertain":16145},"No human clinical trials of dihexa were identified; all current evidence is preclinical.","In rodent models, dihexa and related metabolically stabilized angiotensin IV analogs improved cognition (e.g., reversal of scopolamine-induced amnesia) and facilitated synaptogenesis; a 2014 study showed these procognitive and synaptogenic effects depend on activation of the hepatocyte growth factor (HGF)/c-Met system.","Cell-based work indicates dihexa acts as an HGF mimetic that can activate c-Met signaling implicated in dendritic spine formation; potency claims relative to BDNF come from specific assay systems and have not been replicated in clinical settings.","Claims that dihexa is 'seven orders of magnitude more potent than BDNF' derive from narrow in-vitro assays and marketing-oriented summaries; no human data validate cognitive benefit or safety.",[16147,16151],{"finding":16148,"source":16149,"year":260,"link":16150,"evidenceLevel":50},"Metabolically stabilized angiotensin IV analogs including dihexa reversed scopolamine-induced amnesia in rats, showing procognitive activity in a standard amnesia model.","Preclinical study (PubMed)","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23055539/",{"finding":16152,"source":16153,"year":1152,"link":16154,"evidenceLevel":50},"The procognitive and synaptogenic effects of angiotensin IV-derived peptides were shown to depend on activation of the HGF/c-Met system, linking dihexa's proposed mechanism to hepatocyte growth factor signaling.","Preclinical study (Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics)","https://doi.org/10.1124/jpet.114.218735","No clinical trials exist; evidence is limited to rodent behavioral studies, synaptogenesis assays, and mechanistic work largely from a single research group. Human pharmacokinetics, safety, and efficacy are entirely uncharacterized.","In animal work dihexa crosses the blood-brain barrier and shows oral activity; it is proposed to act via the HGF/c-Met receptor system rather than classical neurotransmitter targets. No human half-life or dosing data were found in reliable sources.",[16158,16161,16164],{"question":16159,"answer":16160},"Has dihexa been tested in humans?","No published human clinical trials were found; all evidence is from rodent and cell-based studies.",{"question":16162,"answer":16163},"How does dihexa work?","It is proposed to act as a hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) mimetic that activates c-Met signaling, promoting dendritic spine formation and synaptic plasticity.",{"question":16165,"answer":16166},"Is dihexa FDA approved?","No. It is an unapproved research compound.",{"id":4579,"name":16168,"slug":16169,"description":16170,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":15,"views":8063,"shortDescription":16171,"researchStatus":16172,"peptideBenefits":16173,"benefits":16218,"peptideSideEffects":16239,"sideEffects":16258,"dosage":16268,"mechanism":16269,"safetyNote":148,"athleteWarning":16270,"chemicalMakeup":16271,"citations":16272,"research":16455,"statsCache":16456,"imageUrl":16458,"molecularWeight":16459,"molecularFormula":16460,"pubchemId":16461,"sequence":16462,"halfLife":13716,"administrationRoute":16463,"casNumber":16464,"smiles":16465,"totalMentions":8,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"protocols":16466,"aliases":16482,"researchAreas":16485,"evidence":16490,"keyStudies":16495,"limitations":16508,"pharmacology":16509,"faqs":16510,"lastReviewed":359},"DSIP (Delta Sleep-Inducing Peptide)","dsip","DSIP (Delta Sleep-Inducing Peptide) is a naturally occurring nine-amino-acid peptide first discovered in rabbit brains during sleep. Unlike sleeping pills that sedate you, DSIP appears to work by normalizing your sleep patterns. **How is it different from sleeping pills?** Traditional sleep medications force you to sleep but often disrupt natural sleep architecture. DSIP seems to restore normal sleep cycles, particularly promoting delta wave sleep — the deep, restorative stage where your body does most of its repair work. **What the research shows:** • Promotes delta wave (deep) sleep without sedative hangover • May help normalize disrupted circadian rhythms • Could reduce stress-induced sleep disturbances • Shows pain-modulating properties • May influence stress hormone regulation **Potential uses:** Researchers have explored DSIP for insomnia, jet lag, chronic pain, and even opioid withdrawal — though clinical evidence remains limited. **How it works:** DSIP appears to modulate GABA receptors, serotonin systems, and stress hormones, but its exact mechanism isn't fully understood. **Typical use:** Administered via injection, often before bedtime. **Important to know:** DSIP is not FDA-approved and research, while intriguing, is limited. Most studies are from the 1980s-90s. --- **Sources:** Schoenenberger GA, et al. (1977) Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | Graf MV, et al. (1986) Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews","Delta sleep-inducing peptide for improved sleep quality","Research compound - Neuropeptide",[16174,16176,16178,16179,16182,16185,16188,16191,16194,16197,16199,16200,16202,16205,16208,16211,16214,16215,16216,16217],{"id":9710,"benefit":16175,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Recovery optimization",{"id":9715,"benefit":16177,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Stress reduction",{"id":9720,"benefit":31,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":246,"benefit":16180,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":16181,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},"Sleep Enhancement: Enhances non-REM and REM 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Stimulants",{"id":10743,"sideEffect":7807,"description":16241,"severity":100,"frequency":23,"source":600,"sourceType":600,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":23,"userReportsCount":23,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":10681,"sideEffect":16244,"description":23,"severity":2597,"frequency":4629,"source":24,"sourceType":24,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":23,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Good tolerability; bell-shaped dose-response curves noted",{"id":632,"sideEffect":16246,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":23,"source":44,"sourceType":44,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":16247,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Paradoxical anesthesia effect","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19142086/",{"id":9963,"sideEffect":7466,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":16249,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":16250,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":16251,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":6343,"management":16252,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Fatal when misadministered","pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8069497/","DSIP","ONLY during reperfusion, NOT during ischemia",{"id":13682,"sideEffect":16254,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Early reports suggest mild nausea",{"id":13688,"sideEffect":112,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":13694,"sideEffect":405,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":13699,"sideEffect":414,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},[16259,16260,16261,16262,16263,16264,16265,16266,16267],{"id":10692,"sideEffect":7807,"description":16241,"severity":100,"frequency":23,"source":600,"sourceType":600,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":23,"userReportsCount":23,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":10743,"sideEffect":7807,"description":16241,"severity":100,"frequency":23,"source":600,"sourceType":600,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":23,"userReportsCount":23,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":10681,"sideEffect":16244,"description":23,"severity":2597,"frequency":4629,"source":24,"sourceType":24,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":23,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":632,"sideEffect":16246,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":23,"source":44,"sourceType":44,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":16247,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":9963,"sideEffect":7466,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":16249,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":16250,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":16251,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":6343,"management":16252,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":13682,"sideEffect":16254,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":13688,"sideEffect":112,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":13694,"sideEffect":405,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":13699,"sideEffect":414,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"100-300mcg before bed","Sleep quality enhancement and stress management peptide","Not WADA banned - anti-inflammatory peptide not currently prohibited for competitive athletes","Small-molecule peptide mimetic (exercise mimetic, non-natural sequence)",[16273,16278,16282,16287,16291,16295,16299,16302,16307,16311,16315,16320,16324,16328,16331,16336,16340,16346,16350,16354,16359,16363,16368,16372,16376,16380,16384,16388,16392,16396,16400,16404,16408,16412,16416,16421,16425,16429,16433,16438,16443,16447,16451],{"id":9949,"title":16274,"authors":155,"journal":16275,"year":458,"citationType":158,"doi":16276,"researchPaperId":16277},"Delta Sleep Inducing Peptide: Mechanisms and Applications","Sleep Medicine Reviews","10.1016/j.sleep.2024.09.021","pubmed_39444618",{"id":5453,"title":16279,"authors":16280,"journal":5518,"year":3074,"citationType":167,"doi":16281},"Delta sleep-inducing peptide (DSIP): a still unresolved riddle.","Kovalzon VM, Strekalova TV","10.1111/j.1471-4159.2006.03693.x",{"id":5456,"title":16283,"authors":16284,"journal":16285,"year":1314,"citationType":167,"doi":16286},"DSIP--a tool for investigating the sleep onset mechanism: a review.","Yehuda S, Carasso RL","The International journal of neuroscience","10.3109/00207458808990695",{"id":5460,"title":16288,"authors":16289,"journal":3059,"year":1360,"citationType":167,"doi":16290},"Delta-sleep-inducing peptide (DSIP): an update.","Graf MV, Kastin AJ","10.1016/0196-9781(86)90148-8",{"id":5463,"title":16292,"authors":16293,"journal":2183,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":16294},"Pichia pastoris secreted peptides crossing the blood-brain barrier and DSIP fusion peptide efficacy in PCPA-induced insomnia mouse models.","Mu X, Qu L, Yin L, Wang L, Liu X, Liu D","10.3389/fphar.2024.1439536",{"id":9556,"title":16296,"authors":16297,"journal":16298,"year":710,"citationType":167},"[DSIP: the sleep peptide or an unknown hypothalamic hormone?].","Koval'zon VM","Zhurnal evoliutsionnoi biokhimii i fiziologii",{"id":9560,"title":16300,"authors":16289,"journal":5546,"year":1499,"citationType":167,"doi":16301},"Delta-sleep-inducing peptide (DSIP): a review.","10.1016/0149-7634(84)90022-8",{"id":9552,"title":16303,"authors":16304,"journal":16305,"year":1499,"citationType":167,"doi":16306},"DSIP in insomnia.","Schneider-Helmert D","European neurology","10.1159/000115714",{"id":9564,"title":16308,"authors":16309,"journal":10313,"year":1499,"citationType":167,"doi":16310},"DSIP reduces amphetamine-induced hyperthermia in mice.","Graf MV, Kastin AJ, Coy DH, Zadina JE","10.1016/0031-9384(84)90114-8",{"id":12729,"title":16312,"authors":16313,"journal":3059,"year":1372,"citationType":167,"doi":16314},"Delta sleep-inducing peptide (DSIP)-like immunoreactivity in gut: coexistence with known peptide hormones.","Bjartell A, Ekman R, Hedenbro J, Sjölund K, Sundler F","10.1016/0196-9781(89)90093-4",{"id":12733,"title":16316,"authors":16317,"journal":16318,"year":1499,"citationType":167,"doi":16319},"DSIP occurs in free form in mammalian plasma, human CSF and urine.","Graf MV, Kastin AJ, Fischman AJ","Pharmacology, biochemistry, and behavior","10.1016/s0091-3057(84)80016-7",{"id":12737,"title":16321,"authors":16322,"journal":16318,"year":774,"citationType":167,"doi":16323},"CSF-plasma relationships for DSIP and some other neuropeptides.","Banks WA, Kastin AJ","10.1016/0091-3057(83)90412-4",{"id":3670,"title":16325,"authors":16326,"journal":1145,"year":1314,"citationType":167,"doi":16327},"Potent antinociceptive effect of centrally administered delta-sleep-inducing peptide (DSIP).","Nakamura A, Nakashima M, Sugao T, Kanemoto H, Fukumura Y, Shiomi H","10.1016/0014-2999(88)90510-9",{"id":3674,"title":16329,"authors":16304,"journal":16305,"year":1360,"citationType":167,"doi":16330},"DSIP in sleep disturbances.","10.1159/000116097",{"id":3677,"title":16332,"authors":16333,"journal":16334,"year":203,"citationType":167,"doi":16335},"Delta sleep-inducing peptide.","Pollard BJ, Pomfrett CJ","European journal of anaesthesiology","10.1046/j.1365-2346.2001.00917.x",{"id":11814,"title":16337,"authors":16338,"journal":16305,"year":1499,"citationType":167,"doi":16339},"DSIP in the treatment of withdrawal syndromes from alcohol and opiates.","Dick P, Costa C, Fayolle K, Grandjean ME, Khoshbeen A, Tissot R","10.1159/000115715",{"id":16341,"title":16342,"authors":16343,"journal":16344,"year":2425,"citationType":167,"doi":16345},469,"Comparison of DSIP- (delta sleep-inducing peptide) and P-DSIP-like (phosphorylated) immunoreactivity in cerebrospinal fluid of patients with senile dementia of Alzheimer type, multi-infarct syndrome, communicating hydrocephalus and Parkinson's disease.","Ernst A, Cramer H, Strubel D, Kuntzmann F, Schoenenberger GA","Journal of neurology","10.1007/BF00314191",{"id":9957,"title":16347,"authors":16348,"journal":2029,"year":849,"citationType":167,"doi":16349},"The effect of delta sleep-inducing peptide (DSIP) and phosphorylated DSIP (P-DSIP) on the apomorphine-induced hypothermia in rats.","Tsunashima K, Masui A, Kato N","10.1016/0006-8993(90)90748-z",{"id":8121,"title":16351,"authors":16352,"journal":3059,"year":1122,"citationType":167,"doi":16353},"JmjC-domain-containing histone demethylases of the JMJD1B type as putative precursors of endogenous DSIP.","Mikhaleva II, Prudchenko IA, Ivanov VT, Voitenkov VB","10.1016/j.peptides.2011.01.006",{"id":8126,"title":16355,"authors":16356,"journal":16357,"year":5198,"citationType":167,"doi":16358},"The influence of synthetic DSIP (delta-sleep-inducing-peptide) on disturbed human sleep.","Schneider-Helmert D, Schoenenberger GA","Experientia","10.1007/BF01971753",{"id":8130,"title":16360,"authors":16361,"journal":16318,"year":810,"citationType":167,"doi":16362},"Differential penetration of DSIP peptides into rat brain.","Kastin AJ, Banks WA, Castellanos PF, Nissen C, Coy DH","10.1016/0091-3057(82)90118-6",{"id":8134,"title":16364,"authors":16365,"journal":16366,"year":1354,"citationType":167,"doi":16367},"Modulation of immunoactive levels of DSIP and blood-brain permeability by lighting and diurnal rhythm.","Banks WA, Kastin AJ, Selznick JK","Journal of neuroscience research","10.1002/jnr.490140307",{"id":8137,"title":16369,"authors":16370,"journal":3059,"year":173,"citationType":167,"doi":16371},"Delta sleep inducing peptide (DSIP): effect on respiration activity in rat brain mitochondria and stress protective potency under experimental hypoxia.","Khvatova EM, Samartzev VN, Zagoskin PP, Prudchenko IA, Mikhaleva II","10.1016/s0196-9781(03)00040-8",{"id":8141,"title":16373,"authors":16374,"journal":2029,"year":2425,"citationType":167,"doi":16375},"The effects of delta-sleep-inducing peptide (DSIP) on wakefulness and sleep patterns in the cat.","Susić V, Masirević G, Totić S","10.1016/0006-8993(87)90006-0",{"id":8145,"title":16377,"authors":16378,"journal":1071,"year":774,"citationType":167,"doi":16379},"Delta sleep-inducing peptide (DSIP)-like material is absorbed by the gastrointestinal tract of the neonatal rat.","Banks WA, Kastin AJ, Coy DH","10.1016/0024-3205(83)90700-2",{"id":8152,"title":16381,"authors":16382,"journal":16318,"year":1360,"citationType":167,"doi":16383},"Structure-activity relationship in the effects of delta-sleep-inducing peptide (DSIP) on rat sleep.","Obál F Jr, Kovalzon VM, Kalikhevich VN, Török A, Alföldi P, Sáry G, Hajós M, Penke B","10.1016/0091-3057(86)90432-6",{"id":8156,"title":16385,"authors":16386,"journal":12206,"year":1354,"citationType":167,"doi":16387},"Delta-sleep-inducing peptide reduces CRF-induced corticosterone release.","Graf MV, Kastin AJ, Coy DH, Fischman AJ","10.1159/000124200",{"id":8679,"title":16389,"authors":16390,"journal":1754,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":16391},"Delta Sleep-Inducing Peptide Recovers Motor Function in SD Rats after Focal Stroke.","Tukhovskaya EA, Ismailova AM, Shaykhutdinova ER, Slashcheva GA, Prudchenko IA, Mikhaleva II, Khokhlova ON, Murashev AN, Ivanov VT","10.3390/molecules26175173",{"id":8683,"title":16393,"authors":16394,"journal":3847,"year":1152,"citationType":167,"doi":16395},"Delta-sleep inducing peptide entrapment in the charged macroporous matrices.","Sukhanova TV, Artyukhov AA, Gurevich YM, Semenikhina MA, Prudchenko IA, Shtilman MI, Markvicheva EA","10.1016/j.msec.2014.05.059",{"id":8686,"title":16397,"authors":16398,"journal":16318,"year":1360,"citationType":167,"doi":16399},"Delta sleep-inducing peptide in spontaneously hypertensive rats.","Graf MV, Kastin AJ, Schoenenberger GA","10.1016/0091-3057(86)90524-1",{"id":8689,"title":16401,"authors":16402,"journal":6391,"year":1403,"citationType":167,"doi":16403},"Immunoreactive delta sleep-inducing peptide in the rat hypothalamus, pituitary and adrenal gland: effects of adrenalectomy.","Bjartell A, Sundler F, Ekman R","10.1159/000182108",{"id":8693,"title":16405,"authors":16406,"journal":12206,"year":710,"citationType":167,"doi":16407},"Decreased delta-sleep and plasma delta-sleep-inducing peptide in patients with Cushing syndrome.","Friedman TC, García-Borreguero D, Hardwick D, Akuete CN, Doppman JL, Dorn LD, Barker CN, Yanovski JA, Chrousos GP","10.1159/000126806",{"id":6631,"title":16409,"authors":16410,"journal":1071,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":16411},"Phosphorylated delta sleep inducing peptide restores spatial memory and p-CREB expression by improving sleep architecture at high altitude.","Roy K, Chauhan G, Kumari P, Wadhwa M, Alam S, Ray K, Panjwani U, Kishore K","10.1016/j.lfs.2018.08.026",{"id":6637,"title":16413,"authors":16414,"journal":1481,"year":5181,"citationType":167,"doi":16415},"Characterization of a delta-electroencephalogram (-sleep)-inducing peptide.","Schoenenberger GA, Monnier M","10.1073/pnas.74.3.1282",{"id":6641,"title":16417,"authors":16418,"journal":16419,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":16420},"Expression and Purification of Delta Sleep-Inducing Peptide Fused with Protein Transduction Domain and Human Serum Albumin in Pichia pastoris.","Zhang XG, Wang WN, Zhang CS, Li K, Ma GD, Li JY","Protein and peptide letters","10.2174/0929866524666170426113022",{"id":7818,"title":16422,"authors":16423,"journal":1071,"year":2425,"citationType":167,"doi":16424},"Delta sleep-inducing peptide (DSIP) stimulates LH release in steroid-primed ovariectomized rats.","Sahu A, Kalra SP","10.1016/0024-3205(87)90239-6",{"id":7126,"title":16426,"authors":16427,"journal":2218,"year":774,"citationType":167,"doi":16428},"Increased sleep following intracerebroventricular injection of the delta sleep-inducing peptide in rats.","Ursin R, Larsen M","10.1016/0304-3940(83)90293-8",{"id":7130,"title":16430,"authors":16431,"journal":16318,"year":249,"citationType":167,"doi":16432},"Delta sleep-inducing peptide and its tetrapeptide analogue alleviate severity of metaphit seizures.","Stanojlović O, Zivanović D, Mirković S, Mikhaleva I","10.1016/j.pbb.2003.10.014",{"id":6883,"title":16434,"authors":16435,"journal":16436,"year":2425,"citationType":167,"doi":16437},"Delta sleep inducing peptide (DSIP) stimulates the release of LH but not FSH via a hypothalamic site of action in the rat.","Iyer KS, McCann SM","Brain research bulletin","10.1016/0361-9230(87)90069-4",{"id":6887,"title":16439,"authors":16440,"journal":16441,"year":920,"citationType":167,"doi":16442},"Delta sleep-inducing-peptide-like immunoreactivity (DSIP-LI) and delta sleep in schizophrenic volunteers.","van Kammen DP, Widerlöv E, Neylan TC, Ekman R, Kelley ME, Mouton A, Peters JL","Sleep","10.1093/sleep/15.6.519",{"id":13125,"title":16444,"authors":16445,"journal":1419,"year":1499,"citationType":167,"doi":16446},"Presence of delta-sleep-inducing peptide-like material in human milk.","Graf MV, Hunter CA, Kastin AJ","10.1210/jcem-59-1-127",{"id":13128,"title":16448,"authors":16449,"journal":16450,"year":774,"citationType":167},"Synthesis of delta sleep-inducing peptide (DSIP) and its physiological activity.","Ji AX, Li CX, Ye YH, Lin Y, Xing QY, Liu SY, Zhang WY, Wang ZS, Dai XJ","Scientia Sinica. Series B, Chemical, biological, agricultural, medical & earth sciences",{"id":13131,"title":16452,"authors":16453,"journal":10375,"year":920,"citationType":167,"doi":16454},"Production and immunohistochemical application of monoclonal antibodies against delta sleep-inducing peptide.","Charnay Y, Golaz J, Vallet PG, Bouras C","10.1016/0891-0618(92)90005-b",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":8,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":16457},"2026-01-05T22:12:16.978266","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/dsip.webp","848.82","C35H48N10O15","68816","WAGGDASGE","SC/IV","62568-57-4","C[C@@H](C(=O)NCC(=O)NCC(=O)N[C@@H](CC(=O)O)C(=O)N[C@@H](C)C(=O)N[C@@H](CO)C(=O)NCC(=O)N[C@@H](CCC(=O)O)C(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@H](CC1=CNC2=CC=CC=C21)N",[16467,16469,16472,16476,16479],{"name":10167,"dose":5810,"frequency":16468,"route":311},"Once nightly",{"name":16470,"dose":6452,"frequency":310,"route":16471},"Chronic Pain","IV or SubQ",{"name":16473,"dose":16474,"frequency":16475,"route":311},"Stress Management","150mcg","Evening",{"name":16477,"dose":4295,"frequency":4299,"route":16478},"Withdrawal Support","IV preferred",{"name":16480,"dose":10161,"frequency":16481,"route":311},"Athletic Recovery","Post-training",[16483,16251,16484],"Delta sleep-inducing peptide","WAGGDASGE (Trp-Ala-Gly-Gly-Asp-Ala-Ser-Gly-Glu)",[16486,16487,16488,16489],"Sleep regulation / insomnia","Neuroendocrine (HPA-axis) modulation","Chronic pain","Opioid-withdrawal support",{"human":16491,"animal":16492,"inVitro":16493,"uncertain":16494},"A double-blind study in chronic insomniacs (Neuropsychobiology 1992) reported improved sleep with DSIP, and an earlier Lancet report (1981) described improved sleep in insomniacs. Small studies also reported reduced pain episodes in chronic pain patients (Eur Neurol 1984) and use as an adjunct in opioid detoxification; this clinical literature is old, small, and never replicated in modern trials.","Rodent studies show DSIP increases delta-wave sleep and modulates stress-related endocrine responses (e.g., corticosterone), supporting a neuroendocrine role beyond sleep.","DSIP shows no classic sedative pharmacology; laboratory work has focused on rapid enzymatic degradation in plasma (very short half-life) and receptor-binding/neuroendocrine assays.","The peptide is rapidly degraded and its half-life is short, and reproducible sleep-promoting efficacy in modern controlled trials has not been established; most clinical evidence dates from the 1980s–1990s and is methodologically limited.",[16496,16500,16504],{"finding":16497,"source":16498,"year":920,"link":16499,"evidenceLevel":46},"In chronic insomniac patients, DSIP improved sleep in a double-blind study, supporting a sleep-normalizing (delta-wave) effect.","Double-blind clinical study (Neuropsychobiology)","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1299794/",{"finding":16501,"source":16502,"year":5198,"link":16503,"evidenceLevel":46},"Synthetic DSIP improved sleep in insomniacs in an early controlled report.","Clinical study (Lancet)","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6112579/",{"finding":16505,"source":16506,"year":1499,"link":16507,"evidenceLevel":46},"A clinical pilot study reported therapeutic effects of DSIP in patients with chronic, pronounced pain episodes.","Clinical pilot study (Eur Neurol)","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6548970/","All clinical data are decades old, small, and unreplicated; no modern randomized trials confirm sleep, pain, or metabolic benefits. Peptide instability (short half-life) and non-standardized formulations make the clinical literature hard to interpret.","A nine-amino-acid endogenous peptide with a very short plasma half-life (rapid enzymatic degradation), historically administered intranasally or intravenously in clinical studies; effects are linked to delta-sleep promotion and neuroendocrine (stress-axis) modulation rather than direct receptor-driven sedation.",[16511,16514],{"question":16512,"answer":16513},"Is DSIP approved as a sleep medication?","No. DSIP is not an approved drug; it is sold as a research peptide, and the supporting clinical studies are old and small.",{"question":16515,"answer":16516},"Does DSIP work like a sleeping pill?","No — it is not a sedative. Research suggests it modulates sleep architecture (delta/deep sleep) and stress hormones, but modern confirmatory trials are lacking.",{"id":9527,"name":16518,"slug":16519,"description":16520,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":15,"views":2486,"shortDescription":16521,"peptideBenefits":16522,"benefits":16531,"peptideSideEffects":16536,"sideEffects":16540,"dosage":5043,"mechanism":16543,"safetyNote":16544,"research":16545,"statsCache":16546,"imageUrl":16548,"molecularWeight":16549,"molecularFormula":16550,"pubchemId":16551,"sequence":16552,"halfLife":16553,"administrationRoute":13717,"casNumber":16554,"totalMentions":8,"dataCompleteness":6033,"hasResearchData":15,"aliases":16555,"researchAreas":16561,"evidence":16565,"keyStudies":16569,"limitations":16582,"pharmacology":16583,"faqs":16584,"lastReviewed":359},"Melanostatin DM (MIF-1)","melanostatin-dm","Melanostatin (MIF-1, Pro-Leu-Gly-NH2) is a naturally occurring tripeptide that functions as a melanocyte-stimulating hormone release-inhibiting factor and dopamine modulator. The peptide has demonstrated effects on mood, motivation, and cognitive function through its interactions with dopamine receptor systems. Research indicates MIF-1 opposes some effects of melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) peptides and may modulate the activity of opioid systems. Studies show potential antidepressant and anti-parkinsonian effects, possibly through enhancement of dopaminergic transmission. The peptide has been investigated for its effects on opiate tolerance and withdrawal, suggesting utility in addiction medicine. Research demonstrates MIF-1 may reduce the development of tolerance to morphine and attenuate withdrawal symptoms. The tripeptide is resistant to enzymatic degradation and can cross the blood-brain barrier. Clinical studies have explored applications in depression, Parkinson's disease, and substance dependence, though results have been variable. MIF-1 represents an interesting endogenous peptide with multiple neuromodulatory effects that continue to be investigated.","MIF-1 peptide for mood regulation and dopamine modulation",[16523,16525,16527,16529],{"id":15819,"benefit":16524,"benefitCategory":15763,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Dopamine receptor activity enhancement",{"id":15825,"benefit":16526,"benefitCategory":15763,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Parkinson's psychomotor improvement",{"id":15830,"benefit":16528,"benefitCategory":15763,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"L-DOPA potentiation",{"id":15836,"benefit":16530,"benefitCategory":15763,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Mood regulation support",[16532,16533,16534,16535],{"id":15819,"benefit":16524,"benefitCategory":15763,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":15825,"benefit":16526,"benefitCategory":15763,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":15830,"benefit":16528,"benefitCategory":15763,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":15836,"benefit":16530,"benefitCategory":15763,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},[16537,16538],{"id":3264,"sideEffect":669,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":3267,"sideEffect":16539,"description":23,"severity":6526,"frequency":6526,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Limited long-term data",[16541,16542],{"id":3264,"sideEffect":669,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":3267,"sideEffect":16539,"description":23,"severity":6526,"frequency":6526,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Dopamine modulator for mood regulation and cognitive enhancement","Research compound. Limited human data. D2 receptor allosteric modulator.",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":8,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":16547},"2026-01-05T22:12:19.228313","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/melanostatin-dm.webp","284.0","C13H24N4O3","5487257","PLG","Short (tripeptide)","2002-44-0",[16556,16557,16558,16559,16552,16560],"Melanostatin","MIF-1","MSH release-inhibiting factor","Pro-Leu-Gly-NH2","Melanocyte-stimulating hormone release-inhibiting factor",[16562,16563,903,16564],"Dopamine modulation","Depression and mood disorders","Opioid tolerance and addiction research",{"human":16566,"animal":16567,"inVitro":23,"uncertain":16568},"Early clinical studies reported improvement in major depression after low subcutaneous doses of MIF-1 (1994, PMID 7989637), while trials in Parkinson's disease showed no behavioral benefit over L-dopa (1979, PMID 39308). Overall human evidence is old, small, and mixed.","Rodent studies show MIF-1/PLG and its peptidomimetic PAOPA attenuate haloperidol-induced vacuous chewing movements (a tardive-dyskinesia model) and modulate dopamine and opioid systems.","The '-DM' suffix in the product name (melanostatin-dm) does not correspond to a standard published designation; many modern claims about mood/neuroprotection extrapolate from dated 1970s-1990s literature and lack contemporary replication.",[16570,16574,16578],{"finding":16571,"source":16572,"year":710,"link":16573,"evidenceLevel":46},"Low subcutaneous doses of MIF-1 produced significant improvement in patients with major depression in a small trial.","Clinical study (J Affect Disord)","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7989637/",{"finding":16575,"source":16576,"year":823,"link":16577,"evidenceLevel":46},"MIF-I failed to affect behavioral responses in patients with Parkinson's disease under L-dopa therapy.","Clinical trial","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39308/",{"finding":16579,"source":16580,"year":173,"link":16581,"evidenceLevel":50},"PLG and peptidomimetic PAOPA attenuated haloperidol-induced vacuous chewing movements in rats, a model of human tardive dyskinesia.","Preclinical study (rodent model)","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12668218/","Human evidence is decades old, small-scale, and inconsistent (positive depression signal, negative Parkinson's signal); no modern large trials; the 'DM' variant designation is not validated in the literature; no regulatory approval.","Naturally occurring hypothalamic tripeptide Pro-Leu-Gly-NH2 (MIF-1/melanostatin); reported to modulate dopaminergic signaling and oppose some alpha-MSH actions; resistant to enzymatic degradation and can cross the blood-brain barrier. Research-stage only.",[16585,16588],{"question":16586,"answer":16587},"What is the 'DM' in melanostatin-dm?","No standard published definition was found; it appears to be a vendor/product-specific designation, and the underlying compound literature refers to MIF-1 (Pro-Leu-Gly-NH2).",{"question":16589,"answer":16590},"Is there modern evidence for melanostatin in depression?","The positive human signal dates to a 1994 small trial; no contemporary large or replicated trials support current use.",{"id":153,"name":16592,"slug":16593,"description":16594,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":15,"views":2486,"shortDescription":16595,"peptideBenefits":16596,"benefits":16605,"peptideSideEffects":16610,"sideEffects":16614,"dosage":16617,"mechanism":16618,"safetyNote":16619,"citations":16620,"research":16625,"statsCache":16626,"imageUrl":16628,"molecularWeight":16629,"molecularFormula":16630,"pubchemId":16631,"sequence":5375,"halfLife":16632,"administrationRoute":5799,"casNumber":16633,"smiles":16634,"totalMentions":8,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"aliases":16635,"researchAreas":16639,"evidence":16642,"keyStudies":16647,"limitations":16652,"pharmacology":16653,"faqs":16654,"lastReviewed":359},"N-Acetyl Selank","n-acetyl-selank","N-Acetyl Selank is an acetylated variant of Selank designed for enhanced stability and improved blood-brain barrier penetration. The acetyl group modification protects the peptide from enzymatic degradation and may increase its bioavailability and potency compared to standard Selank. Like its parent compound, N-Acetyl Selank is based on the endogenous immunomodulatory peptide tuftsin and demonstrates anxiolytic and nootropic properties. Research indicates the modification may provide stronger effects on brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression and more pronounced cognitive enhancement. The peptide modulates neurotransmitter systems including serotonin and dopamine without sedation or dependence. Studies suggest improved memory consolidation, reduced anxiety, and enhanced focus. N-Acetyl Selank is typically administered intranasally for optimal brain delivery. The enhanced version may require lower doses to achieve similar effects as standard Selank. While research supports its cognitive and anxiolytic properties, comprehensive clinical trials comparing the acetylated and non-acetylated forms are limited.","Acetylated Selank with improved bioavailability for anxiety relief",[16597,16599,16601,16603],{"id":15856,"benefit":16598,"benefitCategory":15763,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Enhanced anxiolytic effects",{"id":15861,"benefit":16600,"benefitCategory":14844,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Improved stability vs Selank",{"id":15867,"benefit":16602,"benefitCategory":15763,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Memory protection",{"id":15872,"benefit":16604,"benefitCategory":15763,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"BDNF regulation",[16606,16607,16608,16609],{"id":15856,"benefit":16598,"benefitCategory":15763,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":15861,"benefit":16600,"benefitCategory":14844,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":15867,"benefit":16602,"benefitCategory":15763,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":15872,"benefit":16604,"benefitCategory":15763,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},[16611,16612],{"id":9725,"sideEffect":669,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":9730,"sideEffect":16613,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":5477,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Nasal irritation",[16615,16616],{"id":9725,"sideEffect":669,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":9730,"sideEffect":16613,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":5477,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"200-400 mcg Daily","Modified Selank with improved stability and anxiolytic effects","Research compound. Enhanced stability version of Selank. WADA BANNED. Not FDA approved.",[16621],{"id":6264,"title":16622,"authors":155,"journal":15795,"year":697,"citationType":158,"doi":16623,"researchPaperId":16624},"Selank: Anxiolytic Peptide with Nootropic Properties","10.1007/s11055-019-00815-y","pubmed_31667971",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":8,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":16627},"2026-01-05T22:12:02.833121","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/n-acetyl-selank.webp","793.0","C35H59N11O10","133082488","~10 minutes","2703745-90-6","C[C@H]([C@@H](C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCCN)C(=O)N1CCC[C@H]1C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCN=C(N)N)C(=O)N2CCC[C@H]2C(=O)NCC(=O)N3CCC[C@H]3C(=O)O)NC(=O)C)O",[16636,16637,16638,5929],"NA-Selank","N-Acetyl Selank Amidate","Acetylated Selank",[16640,1648,6121,16641],"Anxiety disorders","Peptide stability / delivery",{"human":16643,"animal":16644,"inVitro":16645,"uncertain":16646},"The parent compound Selank has clinical data from Russia: a study of 62 patients with generalized anxiety disorder and neurasthenia reported anxiolytic effects similar to medazepam with additional antiasthenic/psychostimulant effects. No dedicated published clinical trials of the N-acetylated variant itself were found.","Selank and its analogs have been studied in rodent models for anxiolytic and cognitive effects; the N-acetyl modification is claimed to improve stability and brain penetration, but published side-by-side animal data for the acetylated form are limited.","The acetylation of the N-terminus is a common peptide-stabilization strategy intended to resist aminopeptidase degradation; detailed in-vitro comparative data specific to N-acetyl-selank are scarce in the indexed literature.","Claims that N-acetyl-selank outperforms Selank on bioavailability, BDNF expression, or potency are based largely on vendor/derivative reasoning rather than published comparative clinical studies. No regulatory approvals exist.",[16648],{"finding":16649,"source":16650,"year":229,"link":16651,"evidenceLevel":46},"In 62 patients with generalized anxiety disorder and neurasthenia, Selank (30 patients) produced anxiolytic effects similar to medazepam (32 patients) with additional antiasthenic and psychostimulant effects.","Clinical study (Zh Nevrol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova, Russian-language)","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18454096/","The human evidence base belongs to the parent peptide Selank (Russian studies, mostly small and non-placebo-controlled). There are no indexed clinical trials, pharmacokinetic studies, or comparative efficacy data specific to N-acetyl-selank; the acetylated form is essentially an unstudied derivative sold for research use.","Selank is a tuftsin-derived heptapeptide (Thr-Lys-Pro-Arg-Pro-Gly-Pro). N-acetyl-selank is the N-terminally acetylated version, intended to resist enzymatic degradation and improve stability/penetration; no published half-life or pharmacokinetic data for the acetylated form were found in indexed sources. Selank has been administered intranasally and SC in research/clinical use.",[16655,16658,16661],{"question":16656,"answer":16657},"What is the difference between Selank and N-acetyl-selank?","N-acetyl-selank adds an acetyl group to the N-terminus of Selank, a stability modification intended to reduce enzymatic degradation; it is otherwise the same peptide sequence.",{"question":16659,"answer":16660},"Has N-acetyl-selank been studied in clinical trials?","No dedicated clinical trials of the N-acetyl form were found. Clinical data exist for the parent compound Selank from Russian studies in anxiety disorders.",{"question":16662,"answer":16663},"Is N-acetyl-selank approved as a drug?","No. Neither Selank nor N-acetyl-selank has FDA/EMA approval; Selank has limited clinical use in Russia.",{"id":427,"name":16665,"slug":16666,"description":16667,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":15,"views":861,"shortDescription":16668,"peptideBenefits":16669,"benefits":16677,"peptideSideEffects":16682,"sideEffects":16685,"dosage":16688,"mechanism":16689,"safetyNote":16690,"citations":16691,"research":16698,"statsCache":16699,"imageUrl":16701,"molecularWeight":16702,"molecularFormula":16703,"pubchemId":16704,"sequence":16705,"halfLife":16706,"administrationRoute":5799,"casNumber":16707,"smiles":16708,"totalMentions":8,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"protocols":16709,"aliases":16714,"researchAreas":16718,"evidence":16722,"keyStudies":16726,"limitations":16734,"pharmacology":16735,"faqs":16736,"lastReviewed":359},"N-Acetyl Semax","n-acetyl-semax","N-Acetyl Semax is an acetylated variant of Semax with enhanced stability, improved blood-brain barrier penetration, and potentially stronger nootropic effects. The acetyl modification protects against enzymatic degradation and may increase potency compared to standard Semax. Like its parent compound derived from ACTH (4-10), N-Acetyl Semax increases brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression, enhances dopamine and serotonin neurotransmission, and provides neuroprotective effects. Research suggests the acetylated form may produce more pronounced cognitive enhancement, including improved memory, attention, and mental clarity. The peptide demonstrates antioxidant properties and may protect against hypoxic and ischemic brain injury. N-Acetyl Semax is administered intranasally for direct brain delivery. Studies indicate potential applications for cognitive enhancement, depression, anxiety, stroke recovery, and neurodegenerative conditions. The modification allows for potentially lower dosing while maintaining or enhancing efficacy. Clinical use is primarily documented in Russian medical literature.","Acetylated Semax variant with enhanced stability and penetration",[16670,16672,16674,16676],{"id":15877,"benefit":16671,"benefitCategory":15763,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Enhanced cognitive effects",{"id":15882,"benefit":16673,"benefitCategory":14844,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Improved stability vs Semax",{"id":15888,"benefit":16675,"benefitCategory":15763,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"BDNF upregulation",{"id":15892,"benefit":957,"benefitCategory":15763,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},[16678,16679,16680,16681],{"id":15877,"benefit":16671,"benefitCategory":15763,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":15882,"benefit":16673,"benefitCategory":14844,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":15888,"benefit":16675,"benefitCategory":15763,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":15892,"benefit":957,"benefitCategory":15763,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},[16683,16684],{"id":9735,"sideEffect":669,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":9740,"sideEffect":16613,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":5477,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},[16686,16687],{"id":9735,"sideEffect":669,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":9740,"sideEffect":16613,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":5477,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"300-600 mcg 1-3x/day","Enhanced version of Semax with improved bioavailability and stability","Research compound. Enhanced stability version of Semax. Not FDA approved.",[16692],{"id":16693,"title":16694,"authors":16695,"journal":16696,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":16697},1315,"Influence of the N-terminus acetylation of Semax, a synthetic analog of ACTH(4-10), on copper(II) and zinc(II) coordination and biological properties.","Magrì A, Tabbì G, Giuffrida A, Pappalardo G, Satriano C, Naletova I, Nicoletti VG, Attanasio F","Journal of inorganic biochemistry","10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2016.08.013",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":8,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":16700},"2026-01-05T22:12:13.884395","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/n-acetyl-semax.webp","855.0","C39H53N9O11S","172638603","MEEEIAALVIDNGSGMCKAGFAGDDAPRAVFPSIVGRPRHQGVMVGMGQKDSYVGDEAQSKRGILTLKYPIEHGIVTNWDDMEKIWHHTFYNELRVAPEEHPVLLTEAPLNPKANREKMTQIMFETFNTPAMYVAIQAVLSLYASGRTTGIVMDSGDGVTHTVPIYEGYALPHAILRLDLAGRDLTDYLMKILTERGYSFTTTAEREIVRDIKEKLCYVALDFEQEMATAASSSSLEKSYELPDGQVITIGNERFRCPEALFQPSFLGMESCGIHETTFNSIMKCDVDIRKDLYANTVLSGGTTMYPGIADRMQKEITALAPSTMKIKIIAPPERKYSVWIGGSILASLSTFQQMWISKQEYDESGPSIVHRKCF","Extended","2920938-90-3","CC(=O)N[C@@H](CCSC)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCC(=O)O)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC1=CN=CN1)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC2=CC=CC=C2)C(=O)N3CCC[C@H]3C(=O)NCC(=O)N4CCC[C@H]4C(=O)N",[16710,16711,16712,16713],{"name":1648,"dose":6039,"frequency":3989,"route":6089},{"name":6091,"dose":6092,"frequency":3989,"route":6089},{"name":6094,"dose":6039,"frequency":5807,"route":6089},{"name":957,"dose":6096,"frequency":3989,"route":6089},[16665,16715,16716,16717],"Ac-SEMAX","Acetylated Semax","Semax (acetylated form)",[16719,16720,16721],"Nootropics / cognitive enhancement","Neuroprotection and stroke recovery","BDNF modulation",{"human":16723,"animal":16724,"inVitro":23,"uncertain":16725},"Semax (parent heptapeptide, ACTH 4-10 derivative) has been studied in Russian clinical literature, including a clinical/electrophysiological study in acute hemispheric ischemic stroke reporting improved recovery (PMID 11517472). Specific human trials of the N-acetyl variant are scarce and largely confined to Russian-language literature.","Animal studies of Semax and its acetylated analogs report increased brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression, neuroprotection in hypoxic/ischemic models, and cognitive-enhancing effects.","Most human data concern unmodified Semax rather than the acetylated form; the acetyl modification's added benefit over standard Semax is supported mainly by manufacturer/analog claims, and the compound is not FDA-approved.",[16727,16730],{"finding":16728,"source":16729,"year":203,"link":6130,"evidenceLevel":46},"In an acute hemispheric ischemic stroke study, Semax improved clinical and electrophysiological recovery versus control.","Clinical study (Russian literature, Zh Nevrol Psikhiatr)",{"finding":16731,"source":16732,"year":3074,"link":16733,"evidenceLevel":50},"Semax, an ACTH(4-10) analog, upregulates BDNF and trkB expression in the rat hippocampus, providing a molecular basis for its cognitive/neuroprotective effects.","Preclinical study (Brain Research)","https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0006-8993(06)02295-5","Peer-reviewed human evidence is dominated by older Russian studies of Semax itself; the N-acetyl variant lacks independent large trials, is not FDA-approved, and much circulating dosing/safety guidance is anecdotal or vendor-sourced.","Heptapeptide derived from ACTH(4-10) with N-terminal acetylation intended to improve enzymatic stability and blood-brain barrier penetration; administered intranasally; reported to raise BDNF and modulate dopaminergic/serotonergic transmission. Research/limited-regional-medicine status.",[16737,16740],{"question":16738,"answer":16739},"Is N-acetyl Semax FDA approved?","No. It is not FDA-approved; the parent compound Semax has registered medical use in Russia, but the acetylated variant is primarily a research compound.",{"question":16741,"answer":16742},"How does acetylation change Semax?","The N-terminal acetyl group is designed to protect against enzymatic degradation, extending stability and potentially potency versus unmodified Semax - though comparative human data are limited.",{"id":5134,"name":16744,"slug":16745,"description":16746,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":15,"views":2290,"researchStatus":16747,"peptideBenefits":16748,"benefits":16758,"peptideSideEffects":16765,"sideEffects":16781,"dosage":16789,"mechanism":16790,"safetyNote":16791,"athleteWarning":16792,"chemicalMakeup":16793,"citations":16794,"research":16870,"statsCache":16871,"imageUrl":16873,"molecularWeight":16874,"molecularFormula":16875,"pubchemId":16876,"halfLife":16877,"administrationRoute":4541,"casNumber":16878,"smiles":16879,"totalMentions":8,"dataCompleteness":1916,"hasResearchData":28,"aliases":16880,"researchAreas":16884,"evidence":16888,"keyStudies":16893,"limitations":16902,"pharmacology":16903,"faqs":16904,"lastReviewed":359},"NSI-189","nsi-189","NSI-189 is a small molecule neurogenic compound (technically a benzylpiperazine-aminopyridine, not a peptide) developed to stimulate neurogenesis in the hippocampus. The compound was discovered through screening for molecules that promote hippocampal neural stem cell proliferation. Research demonstrates NSI-189 increases hippocampal volume, enhances synaptic plasticity, and improves cognitive and emotional processing in preclinical models. Phase 2 clinical trials evaluated NSI-189 for major depressive disorder, showing improvements in cognitive function and some measures of depression, though primary efficacy endpoints produced mixed results. The mechanism of action involves stimulation of hippocampal neurogenesis, potentially addressing the neurodegenerative aspects of depression and cognitive decline. Studies indicate benefits for spatial and verbal memory, processing speed, and executive function. NSI-189 represents a novel mechanism-based approach to neuropsychiatric conditions that targets brain structure and plasticity rather than neurotransmitter modulation alone. Research continues into applications for depression, cognitive impairment, and neurodegenerative diseases.","Research compound - Neurogenic compound",[16749,16750,16752,16753,16755,16757],{"id":13645,"benefit":15967,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":13650,"benefit":16751,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Depression treatment",{"id":13655,"benefit":1648,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":13660,"benefit":16754,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Hippocampal growth",{"id":13665,"benefit":16756,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Mood improvement",{"id":10232,"benefit":6094,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},[16759,16760,16761,16762,16763,16764],{"id":13645,"benefit":15967,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":13650,"benefit":16751,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":13655,"benefit":1648,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":13660,"benefit":16754,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":13665,"benefit":16756,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":10232,"benefit":6094,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},[16766,16768,16769,16770,16772,16775,16778],{"id":1003,"sideEffect":16767,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Insomnia",{"id":12084,"sideEffect":16539,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":997,"sideEffect":112,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":1009,"sideEffect":16771,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Anxiety in some users",{"id":10332,"sideEffect":398,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":15554,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":16773,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":16744,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":1888,"management":16774,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7303010/","Standard analgesics",{"id":10337,"sideEffect":398,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":5476,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":16776,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":16744,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":1888,"management":16777,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},"pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5030464/","Dose reduction if severe",{"id":10343,"sideEffect":398,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":5476,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":16779,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":16744,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":1888,"management":16780,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26643541/","Take at bedtime",[16782,16783,16784,16785,16786,16787,16788],{"id":1003,"sideEffect":16767,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":12084,"sideEffect":16539,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":997,"sideEffect":112,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":1009,"sideEffect":16771,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":10332,"sideEffect":398,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":15554,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":16773,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":16744,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":1888,"management":16774,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":10337,"sideEffect":398,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":5476,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":16776,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":16744,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":1888,"management":16777,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},{"id":10343,"sideEffect":398,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":5476,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":16779,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":16744,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":1888,"management":16780,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"40-80mg daily","Neurogenesis stimulator for hippocampal growth","Research compound with Phase 2 trials for depression. Limited safety data.","Not WADA banned - neurogenic compound not currently prohibited for competitive athletes","Benzylpiperizine-aminiopyridine, neurogenic small molecule",[16795,16800,16805,16810,16815,16821,16826,16832,16837,16843,16848,16854,16860,16865],{"id":9518,"title":16796,"authors":155,"journal":16797,"year":478,"citationType":3339,"doi":16798,"researchPaperId":16799},"NSI-189 Phase 2 Trial for Major Depressive Disorder","Biological Psychiatry","10.1016/j.biopsych.2023.08.012","pubmed_37892456",{"id":16801,"title":16802,"authors":16803,"journal":3352,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":16804},1363,"The neurogenic compound, NSI-189 phosphate: a novel multi-domain treatment capable of pro-cognitive and antidepressant effects.","McIntyre RS, Johe K, Rong C, Lee Y","10.1080/13543784.2017.1324847",{"id":16806,"title":16807,"authors":16808,"journal":16809,"year":451,"citationType":167},1364,"NSI-189 phosphate, a novel neurogenic compound, selectively benefits moderately depressed patients: A post-hoc analysis of a phase 2 study of major depressive disorder.","Johe KK, Kay G, Kumar S, Burdick KE, McIntyre RS, Papakostas GI, Fava M","Annals of clinical psychiatry : official journal of the American Academy of Clinical Psychiatrists",{"id":16811,"title":16812,"authors":16813,"journal":14581,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":16814},1365,"NSI-189, a small molecule with neurogenic properties, exerts behavioral, and neurostructural benefits in stroke rats.","Tajiri N, Quach DM, Kaneko Y, Wu S, Lee D, Lam T, Hayama KL, Hazel TG, Johe K, Wu MC, Borlongan CV","10.1002/jcp.25847",{"id":16816,"title":16817,"authors":16818,"journal":16819,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":16820},1366,"Enhancement of Mitochondrial Function by the Neurogenic Molecule NSI-189 Accompanies Reversal of Peripheral Neuropathy and Memory Impairment in a Rat Model of Type 2 Diabetes.","Jolivalt CG, Aghanoori MR, Navarro-Diaz MC, Han MM, Sanchez G, Guernsey L, Quach D, Johe K, Fernyhough P, Calcutt NA","Journal of diabetes research","10.1155/2022/8566970",{"id":16822,"title":16823,"authors":16824,"journal":16022,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":16825},1367,"Enhancement of synaptic plasticity and reversal of impairments in motor and cognitive functions in a mouse model of Angelman Syndrome by a small neurogenic molecule, NSI-189.","Liu Y, Johe K, Sun J, Hao X, Wang Y, Bi X, Baudry M","10.1016/j.neuropharm.2018.10.038",{"id":16827,"title":16828,"authors":16829,"journal":16830,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":16831},1368,"Amelioration of Both Central and Peripheral Neuropathy in Mouse Models of Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes by the Neurogenic Molecule NSI-189.","Jolivalt CG, Marquez A, Quach D, Navarro Diaz MC, Anaya C, Kifle B, Muttalib N, Sanchez G, Guernsey L, Hefferan M, Smith DR, Fernyhough P, Johe K, Calcutt NA","Diabetes","10.2337/db19-0271",{"id":16833,"title":16834,"authors":16835,"journal":7344,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":16836},1369,"A phase 2, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of NSI-189 phosphate, a neurogenic compound, among outpatients with major depressive disorder.","Papakostas GI, Johe K, Hand H, Drouillard A, Russo P, Kay G, Kashambwa R, Hoeppner B, Flynn M, Yeung A, Martinson MA, Fava M","10.1038/s41380-018-0334-8",{"id":16838,"title":16839,"authors":16840,"journal":16841,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":16842},1370,"Remediation of Radiation-Induced Cognitive Dysfunction through Oral Administration of the Neuroprotective Compound NSI-189.","Allen BD, Acharya MM, Lu C, Giedzinski E, Chmielewski NN, Quach D, Hefferan M, Johe KK, Limoli CL","Radiation research","10.1667/RR14879.1",{"id":16844,"title":16845,"authors":16846,"journal":7344,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":16847},1371,"A Phase 1B, randomized, double blind, placebo controlled, multiple-dose escalation study of NSI-189 phosphate, a neurogenic compound, in depressed patients.","Fava M, Johe K, Ereshefsky L, Gertsik LG, English BA, Bilello JA, Thurmond LM, Johnstone J, Dickerson BC, Makris N, Hoeppner BB, Flynn M, Mischoulon D, Kinrys G, Freeman MP","10.1038/mp.2015.178",{"id":16849,"title":16850,"authors":16851,"journal":16852,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":16853},1372,"Serum metabolite profiles of thyroid autoimmunity patients in early pregnancy.","Chen Z, Lin Z, Gao Y, Jin X, Chen K, Zhang C, Shan Z, Teng W, Li J","PeerJ","10.7717/peerj.18534",{"id":16855,"title":16856,"authors":16857,"journal":16858,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":16859},1373,"Neuroprotective efficacy of P7C3 compounds in primate hippocampus.","Bauman MD, Schumann CM, Carlson EL, Taylor SL, Vázquez-Rosa E, Cintrón-Pérez CJ, Shin MK, Williams NS, Pieper AA","Translational psychiatry","10.1038/s41398-018-0244-1",{"id":16861,"title":16862,"authors":16863,"journal":450,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":16864},1374,"Mitochondrial dysfunction following repeated administration of alprazolam causes attenuation of hippocampus-dependent memory consolidation in mice.","Zhu S, Shi J, Jin Q, Zhang Y, Zhang R, Chen X, Wang C, Shi T, Li L","10.18632/aging.205087",{"id":16866,"title":16867,"authors":16868,"journal":516,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":16869},1375,"Discovery of Novel Diphenyl Acrylonitrile Derivatives That Promote Adult Rats' Hippocampal Neurogenesis.","Liu SS, Ma CX, Quan ZY, Ding J, Yang L, Liu SM, Zhang HA, Qing H, Liang JH","10.3390/ijms25021241",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":8,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":16872},"2026-01-05T22:12:18.681371","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/nsi-189.webp","366.46","C22H30N2O2","25182950","15-20 hours","1270138-40-3","CC(C)CCNC1=C(C=CC=N1)C(=O)N2CCN(CC2)CC3=CC=CC=C3",[16881,16882,16883],"NSI-189 phosphate","6-(4-benzylpiperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-ylmethanamine","Neuralstem NSI-189",[16885,16886,16887],"Major depressive disorder","Hippocampal neurogenesis","Cognitive dysfunction",{"human":16889,"animal":16890,"inVitro":16891,"uncertain":16892},"A 220-patient phase 2 RCT in major depressive disorder (Molecular Psychiatry) found NSI-189 40 mg/day was generally well tolerated but did not separate from placebo on the primary endpoint overall; a post-hoc analysis reported significant benefit in moderately depressed patients. The sponsor reported that a subsequent phase 2b trial missed its primary endpoint, and no phase 3 trial has been registered.","Rodent studies show NSI-189 stimulates hippocampal neurogenesis and exerts antidepressant-like effects in behavioral models.","Cell-culture studies report NSI-189 increases proliferation of human hippocampal progenitor cells.","Claims that NSI-189 'regrows the brain' or enhances cognition in healthy people are unproven; its neurogenesis-based antidepressant mechanism has not been validated in humans.",[16894,16898],{"finding":16895,"source":16896,"year":451,"link":16897,"evidenceLevel":46},"In a 220-subject phase 2 trial, NSI-189 40 mg/day did not show statistically significant separation from placebo on the primary endpoint overall, but was generally well tolerated.","Phase 2 randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial (Molecular Psychiatry)","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30626911/",{"finding":16899,"source":16900,"year":451,"link":16901,"evidenceLevel":46},"Post-hoc analysis of the phase 2 study reported that NSI-189 selectively benefited moderately depressed patients.","post-hoc analysis (Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology)","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32722729/","NSI-189 is a small molecule, not a peptide, and development appears stalled: the phase 2b study missed its primary endpoint and no phase 3 was registered. The neurogenesis hypothesis remains unconfirmed in humans, and cognitive-enhancement use has no clinical support.","Orally administered small-molecule phosphate salt. Proposed mechanism: stimulation of hippocampal neurogenesis via an incompletely characterized molecular target; human pharmacokinetics are not well described in the published literature.",[16905,16908,16911],{"question":16906,"answer":16907},"Is NSI-189 a peptide?","No. It is a small-molecule compound (a benzylpiperazine-aminopyridine) developed by Neuralstem to stimulate hippocampal neurogenesis.",{"question":16909,"answer":16910},"Did NSI-189 work in clinical trials?","The published phase 2 trial did not meet its primary endpoint overall (post-hoc analysis suggested benefit in moderate depression), and the later phase 2b was reported as missing its endpoint; no phase 3 followed.",{"question":16912,"answer":16913},"Is NSI-189 available as a treatment?","No. It is not approved by any regulator and is sold only as a research chemical.",{"id":6256,"name":16915,"slug":16916,"description":16917,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":15,"views":6502,"researchStatus":16918,"peptideBenefits":16919,"benefits":16942,"peptideSideEffects":16954,"sideEffects":16960,"dosage":16964,"mechanism":16965,"safetyNote":10245,"athleteWarning":16017,"chemicalMakeup":16966,"citations":16967,"research":17102,"statsCache":17103,"imageUrl":17105,"molecularWeight":15925,"sequence":17106,"halfLife":1572,"administrationRoute":17107,"totalMentions":8,"dataCompleteness":1916,"hasResearchData":28,"protocols":17108,"aliases":17119,"researchAreas":17124,"evidence":17126,"keyStudies":17131,"limitations":17136,"pharmacology":17137,"faqs":17138,"lastReviewed":359},"P21","p21","P21 is a synthetic peptide derived from the active region of ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF) that has been shown to promote neurogenesis in the hippocampus. Unlike full-length CNTF which has poor brain penetration and significant peripheral side effects, P21 is small enough to cross the blood-brain barrier while retaining neurotrophic activity. Research demonstrates P21 enhances adult hippocampal neurogenesis, increases synaptic plasticity, and improves cognitive function in animal models. Studies show the peptide rescues cognitive deficits in models of Alzheimer's disease by promoting new neuron formation and improving spatial memory. The mechanism involves activation of CNTF receptor signaling pathways that support neuronal survival and differentiation. P21 has shown promise for neurodegenerative conditions, age-related cognitive decline, and potentially depression given the link between hippocampal neurogenesis and mood. The peptide represents a novel approach to supporting brain health through targeted neurotrophin-mimetic activity. Research continues into optimal dosing, duration of treatment, and clinical applications for cognitive disorders.","Research compound - CREB modulator",[16920,16921,16923,16925,16927,16929,16930,16933,16936,16938,16940],{"id":10235,"benefit":6094,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":8835,"benefit":16922,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Cognitive function",{"id":13682,"benefit":16924,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Learning improvement",{"id":13688,"benefit":16926,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"CREB activation",{"id":13694,"benefit":16928,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Synaptic plasticity",{"id":13699,"benefit":957,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3862,"benefit":16931,"benefitCategory":16932,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},"Enhanced neurogenesis in dentate gyrus","neurogenesis",{"id":3868,"benefit":16934,"benefitCategory":16935,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},"Increased BDNF expression","neurotrophic",{"id":3874,"benefit":16937,"benefitCategory":5879,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},"Reduced tau hyperphosphorylation",{"id":3880,"benefit":16939,"benefitCategory":16207,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},"Improved synaptic plasticity",{"id":3886,"benefit":16941,"benefitCategory":16207,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},"Cognitive improvement in AD models",[16943,16944,16945,16946,16947,16948,16949,16950,16951,16952,16953],{"id":10235,"benefit":6094,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":8835,"benefit":16922,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":13682,"benefit":16924,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":13688,"benefit":16926,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":13694,"benefit":16928,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":13699,"benefit":957,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3862,"benefit":16931,"benefitCategory":16932,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},{"id":3868,"benefit":16934,"benefitCategory":16935,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},{"id":3874,"benefit":16937,"benefitCategory":5879,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},{"id":3880,"benefit":16939,"benefitCategory":16207,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},{"id":3886,"benefit":16941,"benefitCategory":16207,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},[16955,16957,16958],{"id":12079,"sideEffect":16956,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Very limited human data",{"id":9444,"sideEffect":16008,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":12087,"sideEffect":16959,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Potential headache",[16961,16962,16963],{"id":12079,"sideEffect":16956,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":9444,"sideEffect":16008,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":12087,"sideEffect":16959,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"100-300mcg daily","CREB pathway activator for memory enhancement","Synthetic peptide fragment, CREB modulator",[16968,16973,16978,16984,16990,16996,17001,17006,17012,17017,17022,17028,17033,17038,17044,17050,17055,17059,17064,17070,17076,17081,17086,17091,17097],{"id":16969,"title":16970,"authors":16971,"journal":1251,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":16972},1401,"Multiple functions of p21 in cell cycle, apoptosis and transcriptional regulation after DNA damage.","Karimian A, Ahmadi Y, Yousefi B","10.1016/j.dnarep.2016.04.008",{"id":16974,"title":16975,"authors":16976,"journal":1088,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":16977},1402,"p21 in Cancer Research.","Shamloo B, Usluer S","10.3390/cancers11081178",{"id":16979,"title":16980,"authors":16981,"journal":16982,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":16983},1403,"The role of p21 in cellular senescence and aging-related diseases.","Yan J, Chen S, Yi Z, Zhao R, Zhu J, Ding S, Wu J","Molecules and cells","10.1016/j.mocell.2024.100113",{"id":16985,"title":16986,"authors":16987,"journal":16988,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":16989},1404,"An inducible p21-Cre mouse model to monitor and manipulate p21-highly-expressing senescent cells in vivo.","Wang B, Wang L, Gasek NS, Zhou Y, Kim T, Guo C, Jellison ER, Haynes L, Yadav S, Tchkonia T, Kuchel GA, Kirkland JL, Xu M","Nature aging","10.1038/s43587-021-00107-6",{"id":16991,"title":16992,"authors":16993,"journal":16994,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":16995},1405,"p21(Waf1/Cip1): its paradoxical effect in the regulation of breast cancer.","Zohny SF, Al-Malki AL, Zamzami MA, Choudhry H","Breast cancer (Tokyo, Japan)","10.1007/s12282-018-0913-1",{"id":16997,"title":16998,"authors":16999,"journal":4179,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":17000},1406,"A p21-ATD mouse model for monitoring and eliminating senescent cells and its application in liver regeneration post injury.","Chen M, Wu G, Lu Y, Sun S, Yu Z, Pan X, Chen W, Xu H, Qiu H, He W, Li X, Wang X, Luo Y, Du Y, Wu J, Wei K, Zhang W, Liu Z, He Z","10.1016/j.ymthe.2024.04.002",{"id":17002,"title":17003,"authors":17004,"journal":516,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":17005},1407,"CDKN1A/p21 in Breast Cancer: Part of the Problem, or Part of the Solution?","Manousakis E, Miralles CM, Esquerda MG, Wright RHG","10.3390/ijms242417488",{"id":17007,"title":17008,"authors":17009,"journal":17010,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":17011},1408,"Multifaceted p21 in carcinogenesis, stemness of tumor and tumor therapy.","Xiao BD, Zhao YJ, Jia XY, Wu J, Wang YG, Huang F","World journal of stem cells","10.4252/wjsc.v12.i6.481",{"id":17013,"title":17014,"authors":17015,"journal":4475,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":17016},1409,"Peptides That Block RAS-p21 Protein-Induced Cell Transformation.","Pincus MR, Lin B, Patel P, Gabutan E, Zohar N, Bowne WB","10.3390/biomedicines11020471",{"id":17018,"title":17019,"authors":17020,"journal":1088,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":17021},1410,"The Multifaceted p21 (Cip1/Waf1/CDKN1A) in Cell Differentiation, Migration and Cancer Therapy.","Kreis NN, Louwen F, Yuan J","10.3390/cancers11091220",{"id":17023,"title":17024,"authors":17025,"journal":17026,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":17027},1411,"Multiple functions of p21 in cancer radiotherapy.","Kuang Y, Kang J, Li H, Liu B, Zhao X, Li L, Jin X, Li Q","Journal of cancer research and clinical oncology","10.1007/s00432-021-03529-2",{"id":17029,"title":17030,"authors":17031,"journal":516,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":17032},1412,"Revisiting the Function of p21(CDKN1A) in DNA Repair: The Influence of Protein Interactions and Stability.","Ticli G, Cazzalini O, Stivala LA, Prosperi E","10.3390/ijms23137058",{"id":17034,"title":17035,"authors":17036,"journal":516,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":17037},1413,"The Emerging Role of p21 in Diabetes and Related Metabolic Disorders.","Elmitwalli O, Darwish R, Al-Jabery L, Algahiny A, Roy S, Butler AE, Hasan AS","10.3390/ijms252313209",{"id":17039,"title":17040,"authors":17041,"journal":17042,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":17043},1414,"CDK-Independent and PCNA-Dependent Functions of p21 in DNA Replication.","Mansilla SF, de la Vega MB, Calzetta NL, Siri SO, Gottifredi V","Genes","10.3390/genes11060593",{"id":17045,"title":17046,"authors":17047,"journal":17048,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":17049},1415,"p21(-/-) Mice Exhibit Spontaneous Articular Cartilage Regeneration Post-Injury.","Jablonski CL, Besler BA, Ali J, Krawetz RJ","Cartilage","10.1177/1947603519876348",{"id":17051,"title":17052,"authors":17053,"journal":450,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":17054},1416,"p21 facilitates chronic lung inflammation via epithelial and endothelial cells.","Levi N, Papismadov N, Majewska J, Roitman L, Wigoda N, Eilam R, Tsoory M, Rotkopf R, Ovadya Y, Akiva H, Regev O, Krizhanovsky V","10.18632/aging.204622",{"id":17056,"title":17057,"authors":17020,"journal":4185,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":17058},1417,"Less understood issues: p21(Cip1) in mitosis and its therapeutic potential.","10.1038/onc.2014.133",{"id":17060,"title":17061,"authors":17062,"journal":17063,"year":736,"citationType":167},1418,"Functional role of p21 during the cellular response to stress.","Gorospe M, Wang X, Holbrook NJ","Gene expression",{"id":17065,"title":17066,"authors":17067,"journal":17068,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":17069},1419,"P21 deficiency exhibits delayed endochondral ossification during fracture healing.","Kikuchi K, Haneda M, Hayashi S, Maeda T, Nakano N, Kuroda Y, Tsubosaka M, Kamenaga T, Fujita M, Ikuta K, Anjiki K, Tachibana S, Onoi Y, Matsumoto T, Kuroda R","Bone","10.1016/j.bone.2022.116572",{"id":17071,"title":17072,"authors":17073,"journal":17074,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":17075},1420,"LincRNA-p21 exon 1 expression correlates with Cdkn1a expression in vivo.","Furuhata R, Imasaka M, Sugimoto M, Yoshinobu K, Araki M, Araki K","Genes to cells : devoted to molecular & cellular mechanisms","10.1111/gtc.12906",{"id":17077,"title":17078,"authors":17079,"journal":450,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":17080},1421,"Sirt1-inducible deacetylation of p21 promotes cardiomyocyte proliferation.","Li B, Li M, Li X, Li H, Lai Y, Huang S, He X, Si X, Zheng H, Liao W, Liao Y, Bin J","10.18632/aging.102587",{"id":17082,"title":17083,"authors":17084,"journal":773,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":17085},1422,"Involvement of the p53/p21 complex in p53-dependent gene expression.","Kim U, Kim KS, Park JK, Um HD","10.1016/j.bbrc.2022.07.022",{"id":17087,"title":17088,"authors":17089,"journal":450,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":17090},1423,"p21 can be a barrier to ferroptosis independent of p53.","Venkatesh D, Stockwell BR, Prives C","10.18632/aging.103961",{"id":17092,"title":17093,"authors":17094,"journal":17095,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":17096},1424,"The immunoregulatory role of p21 in the development of the temporomandibular joint-osteoarthritis.","Khurel-Ochir T, Izawa T, Iwasa A, Kano F, Yamamoto A, Tanaka E","Clinical and experimental dental research","10.1002/cre2.404",{"id":17098,"title":17099,"authors":17100,"journal":2656,"year":243,"citationType":167,"doi":17101},1425,"Lost in transcription: p21 repression, mechanisms, and consequences.","Gartel AL, Radhakrishnan SK","10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-04-3995",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":8,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":17104},"2026-01-05T22:12:09.318907","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/p21.webp","Ac-DGGLAG-NH2","SC/Intranasal",[17109,17111,17115,17117],{"name":1648,"dose":17110,"frequency":3989,"route":5799},"500mcg-1mg",{"name":17112,"dose":17113,"frequency":17114,"route":5799},"Acute cognitive boost","1-2mg","As needed",{"name":17116,"dose":4302,"frequency":3989,"route":5799},"Maintenance/neuroprotection",{"name":17118,"dose":4302,"frequency":3989,"route":5799},"Initial assessment",[17120,17121,17122,17123],"P021","CNTF-derived peptide","CNTF peptidergic compound","CAS 1246751-68-7",[15721,15967,17125,957,16928],"Cognitive impairment",{"human":17127,"animal":17128,"inVitro":17129,"uncertain":17130},"No human clinical trials of P21/P021 were found in indexed sources.","In a triple-transgenic (3xTg-AD) mouse model of Alzheimer's disease, chronic oral treatment with the CNTF-derived neurotrophic peptidergic compound P021 improved cognitive performance and exerted a disease-modifying effect on amyloid and tau pathology and synaptic plasticity.","The compound is derived from the active region of ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF) and is designed to mimic neurotrophic signaling (e.g., via STAT3/CREB pathways) while crossing the blood-brain barrier; cell-based studies support neurotrophic activity.","Most claims circulating in research-use markets (cognitive enhancement in healthy adults, depression, aging) are extrapolations from one Alzheimer's mouse study and are unproven in humans. Dosing, safety, and efficacy in people are entirely unknown.",[17132],{"finding":17133,"source":17134,"year":1152,"link":17135,"evidenceLevel":50},"Chronic oral administration of the CNTF-derived peptidergic compound (P021) in triple-transgenic Alzheimer's mice improved cognition and reduced Alzheimer's-type pathology, including effects on amyloid and tau and improved synaptic plasticity.","Preclinical study in triple-transgenic mouse model (Neurobiology of Disease)","https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nbd.2014.07.001","Evidence is limited to a single peer-reviewed Alzheimer's mouse study and related CNTF-pathway research. There are no human data, no pharmacokinetic characterization in humans, and no clinical trials. The compound is sold only for laboratory research.","P21/P021 is a small peptide derived from the active region of ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF), designed to retain neurotrophic activity while crossing the blood-brain barrier (full-length CNTF does not). In the Alzheimer's mouse study it was given chronically by the oral route. No human half-life or pharmacokinetic data exist.",[17139,17142,17145],{"question":17140,"answer":17141},"What is P21 derived from?","It is a CNTF (ciliary neurotrophic factor)-derived peptide designed to mimic neurotrophic signaling; it is sometimes written P021 (CAS 1246751-68-7).",{"question":17143,"answer":17144},"Has P21 been tested in humans?","No human clinical trials were found; the only indexed efficacy data are from a triple-transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer's disease.",{"question":17146,"answer":17147},"Is P21 approved?","No. It is an unapproved research compound with no regulatory clearance anywhere.",{"id":6340,"name":17149,"slug":17150,"description":17151,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":15,"views":2290,"shortDescription":17152,"peptideBenefits":17153,"benefits":17162,"peptideSideEffects":17167,"sideEffects":17169,"dosage":5043,"mechanism":17171,"safetyNote":17172,"citations":17173,"research":17316,"statsCache":17317,"imageUrl":17319,"molecularWeight":17320,"molecularFormula":17321,"pubchemId":17322,"sequence":17323,"halfLife":17324,"administrationRoute":540,"totalMentions":8,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"protocols":17325,"aliases":17339,"researchAreas":17344,"evidence":17348,"keyStudies":17352,"limitations":17357,"pharmacology":17358,"faqs":17359,"lastReviewed":359},"PE-22-28","pe-22-28","PE-22-28 is a synthetic peptide fragment of Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) that may promote neurogenesis, enhance synaptic plasticity, and protect neurons. Research suggests potential for improving memory, learning, and cognitive function. May benefit neurodegenerative diseases and age-related cognitive decline. Represents a novel approach to cognitive enhancement through neurotrophin signaling.","BDNF fragment peptide for cognitive enhancement and neuroprotection",[17154,17156,17158,17160],{"id":15917,"benefit":17155,"benefitCategory":15763,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"TREK-1 channel inhibition",{"id":16026,"benefit":17157,"benefitCategory":15763,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Antidepressant effects",{"id":16032,"benefit":17159,"benefitCategory":15763,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Rapid neurogenesis",{"id":16037,"benefit":17161,"benefitCategory":14844,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Extended half-life vs spadin",[17163,17164,17165,17166],{"id":15917,"benefit":17155,"benefitCategory":15763,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":16026,"benefit":17157,"benefitCategory":15763,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":16032,"benefit":17159,"benefitCategory":15763,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":16037,"benefit":17161,"benefitCategory":14844,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},[17168],{"id":1846,"sideEffect":983,"description":23,"severity":6526,"frequency":6526,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},[17170],{"id":1846,"sideEffect":983,"description":23,"severity":6526,"frequency":6526,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Cognitive enhancement peptide derived from TREK-1 channel modulation","Research compound only. Shortened spadin analog. Limited human safety data available.",[17174,17179,17185,17191,17197,17202,17208,17214,17219,17225,17231,17236,17242,17248,17253,17259,17265,17271,17277,17282,17288,17293,17299,17304,17310],{"id":17175,"title":17176,"authors":17177,"journal":2183,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":17178},1429,"Shortened Spadin Analogs Display Better TREK-1 Inhibition, In Vivo Stability and Antidepressant Activity.","Djillani A, Pietri M, Moreno S, Heurteaux C, Mazella J, Borsotto M","10.3389/fphar.2017.00643",{"id":17180,"title":17181,"authors":17182,"journal":17183,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":17184},1430,"Antenatal risk stratification for preeclampsia with sFlt-1/PlGF ratio: Which is the best time to test?","Kumar M, Balyan K, Debnath E, Himtsoe B, Sapna S, Kumar A","Pregnancy hypertension","10.1016/j.preghy.2023.09.005",{"id":17186,"title":17187,"authors":17188,"journal":17189,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":17190},1431,"Morphology of pollen in Ferula genus (Apiaceae).","Baser B, Sagıroglu M, Dogan G, Duman H","PhytoKeys","10.3897/phytokeys.179.66312",{"id":17192,"title":17193,"authors":17194,"journal":17195,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":17196},1432,"The cardio-ankle vascular index as a predictor of adverse pregnancy outcomes.","Rueangjaroen P, Luewan S, Phrommintikul A, Leemasawat K, Tongsong T","Journal of hypertension","10.1097/HJH.0000000000002907",{"id":17198,"title":17199,"authors":17200,"journal":8320,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":17201},1433,"Materno-fetal outcome with PlGF above or below cutoff during second half of pregnancy in high-risk women.","Balyan K, Humtso BY, Meena B, Sapna S, Rana A, Kumar M","10.1002/ijgo.15143",{"id":17203,"title":17204,"authors":17205,"journal":17206,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":17207},1434,"The effect of bearing type on the outcome of total hip arthroplasty.","Peters RM, Van Steenbergen LN, Stevens M, Rijk PC, Bulstra SK, Zijlstra WP","Acta orthopaedica","10.1080/17453674.2017.1405669",{"id":17209,"title":17210,"authors":17211,"journal":17212,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":17213},1435,"Occupational use of high-level disinfectants and fecundity among nurses.","Gaskins AJ, Chavarro JE, Rich-Edwards JW, Missmer SA, Laden F, Henn SA, Lawson CC","Scandinavian journal of work, environment & health","10.5271/sjweh.3623",{"id":17215,"title":17216,"authors":17217,"journal":17183,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":17218},1436,"Role of sFLT-1/PlGF ratio in predicting severe adverse materno-fetal outcome in high risk women.","Kumar M, Balyan K, Debnath E, Shankar S, Apte A, Jha S","10.1016/j.preghy.2022.10.003",{"id":17220,"title":17221,"authors":17222,"journal":17223,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":17224},1437,"Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in acute massive pulmonary embolism: a case series and review of the literature.","Al-Bawardy R, Rosenfield K, Borges J, Young MN, Albaghdadi M, Rosovsky R, Kabrhel C","Perfusion","10.1177/0267659118786830",{"id":17226,"title":17227,"authors":17228,"journal":17229,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":17230},1438,"Impact of Photon Counting Detector CT Derived Virtual Monoenergetic Images on the Diagnosis of Pulmonary Embolism.","Yalynska T, Polacin M, Frauenfelder T, Martini K","Diagnostics (Basel, Switzerland)","10.3390/diagnostics12112715",{"id":17232,"title":17233,"authors":17234,"journal":3791,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":17235},1439,"Discovery of an Isothiazolinone-Containing Antitubercular Natural Product Levesquamide.","Liang L, Haltli B, Marchbank DH, Fischer M, Kirby CW, Correa H, Clark TN, Gray CA, Kerr RG","10.1021/acs.joc.0c00339",{"id":17237,"title":17238,"authors":17239,"journal":17240,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":17241},1440,"Prevalence and Recent Trends in Exposure to Night Shiftwork in Canada.","Rydz E, Hall AL, Peters CE","Annals of work exposures and health","10.1093/annweh/wxaa001",{"id":17243,"title":17244,"authors":17245,"journal":17246,"year":836,"citationType":167,"doi":17247},1441,"Preliminary experience with plasma exchange in patients with ulcerative colitis.","Selset Aandahl G, Jacobsen CD, Rode L, Rathe Oedegaard E","Transfusion science","10.1016/s0955-3886(00)00039-4",{"id":17249,"title":17250,"authors":17251,"journal":1071,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":17252},1442,"(Pro)renin/renin receptor expression during normal and preeclamptic pregnancy in rats.","Avila-Ramírez MA, Esteban-Martínez RL, López-Moctezuma E, Anguiano-Robledo L, Hernández-Campos ME, López-Sánchez P","10.1016/j.lfs.2018.11.017",{"id":17254,"title":17255,"authors":17256,"journal":17257,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":17258},1443,"Increase in transforming growth factor-β didnot affect trombospondin1 in preeclampsia placentas.","Prijanti AR, Oktavia NT, Iswanti FC, Mudjihartini N, Purwosunu Y","Turkish journal of obstetrics and gynecology","10.4274/tjod.galenos.2023.82529",{"id":17260,"title":17261,"authors":17262,"journal":17263,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":17264},1444,"Decreased placental growth factor levels precede the onset of gestational diabetes mellitus: Insights into placental dysfunction and endothelial pathophysiology.","Nakajima K, Kumasawa K, Kinugawa M, Nemoto K, Ichinose M, Toshimitsu M, Sayama S, Seyama T, Iriyama T, Hirota Y, Osuga Y","Placenta","10.1016/j.placenta.2025.09.005",{"id":17266,"title":17267,"authors":17268,"journal":17269,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":17270},1445,"MIRRORS: a prospective cohort study assessing the feasibility of robotic interval debulking surgery for advanced-stage ovarian cancer.","Uwins C, Assalaarachchi H, Bennett K, Read J, Tailor A, Crawshaw J, Chatterjee J, Ellis P, Skene SS, Michael A, Butler-Manuel S","International journal of gynecological cancer : official journal of the International Gynecological Cancer Society","10.1136/ijgc-2024-005265",{"id":17272,"title":17273,"authors":17274,"journal":17275,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":17276},1446,"High resolution in vivo 31P-MRS of the liver: potential advantages in the assessment of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease.","Jeon MJ, Lee Y, Ahn S, Lee C, Kim OH, Oh BC, Yu U, Kim H","Acta radiologica (Stockholm, Sweden : 1987)","10.1177/0284185114550850",{"id":17278,"title":17279,"authors":17280,"journal":14424,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":17281},1447,"Predicting net energy in broiler chickens using the comparative slaughter technique.","Moscoso-Muñoz JE, Chino-Velasquez LB, Camero de la Cuba J, Tupayachi Solórzano G, Estrada Zúñiga AC, Arjona-Smith M, Díaz-Céspedes MA, Gómez-Quispe O, Guevara-Carrasco V","10.1016/j.psj.2025.105569",{"id":17283,"title":17284,"authors":17285,"journal":17286,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":17287},1448,"Gestational Diabetes in Migrants: Prevalence and Metabolic Profile During Pregnancy: A Retrospective Italian Cohort Study.","Citro F, Placenza N, Aragona M, Galleano F, Venturi C, Battini L, Marchetti P, Penno G, Bianchi C, Bertolotto A","Diabetes/metabolism research and reviews","10.1002/dmrr.70107",{"id":17289,"title":17290,"authors":17291,"journal":17292,"year":1196,"citationType":167},1449,"MDCT venography in patients with suspected pulmonary embolism: diagnostic impact of pelvic vein evaluation in thromboembolic disease detection.","Feragalli B, Galluzzo M, Scaglione M","Panminerva medica",{"id":17294,"title":17295,"authors":17296,"journal":17297,"year":1360,"citationType":167,"doi":17298},1450,"Increased oviposition and growth in immature Biomphalaria glabrata after exposure to Schistosoma mansoni.","Thornhill JA, Jones JT, Kusel JR","Parasitology","10.1017/s0031182000081166",{"id":17300,"title":17301,"authors":17302,"journal":17303,"year":260,"citationType":167},1451,"Stability of calcium folinate (Teva) in concentrate after re-use and in dilute infusions in 0.9% NaCl in polyethylene bags.","Karbownik A, Szałek E, Urjasz H, Kadziołka M, Grześkowiak E","Acta poloniae pharmaceutica",{"id":17305,"title":17306,"authors":17307,"journal":17308,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":17309},1452,"Haemodynamic assessment of the superficial inferior epigastric artery to demonstrate the vascularisation of a new lower transverse abdominal flap.","Almeida CLA, Vieira LF, Correia LV, Costa AS, Almeida ACA, Souza DCA, Siqueira JPS, Neto SSC","Journal of plastic, reconstructive & aesthetic surgery : JPRAS","10.1016/j.bjps.2025.10.040",{"id":17311,"title":17312,"authors":17313,"journal":17314,"year":260,"citationType":167,"doi":17315},1453,"Urinary nephrin: A new predictive marker for pregnancies with preeclampsia and small-for-gestational age infants.","Yang GY, Lee KA, Park MH, Park HS, Ha EH, Chun SH, Kim YJ","Obstetrics & gynecology science","10.5468/OGS.2013.56.1.22",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":8,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":17318},"2026-01-05T22:12:04.261514","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/pe-22-28.webp","750.0","C96H142N26O22","91826106","MRRGERRDAGGPRPESPVPAGRASLEEPPDGPSAGQATGPGEGRRSTESEVYDDGTNTFFWRAHTLTVLFILTCTLGYVTLLEETPQDTAYNTKRGIVASILVFLCFGVTQAKDGPFSRPHPAYWRFWLCVSVVYELFLIFILFQTVQDGRQFLKYVDPKLGVPLPERDYGGNCLIYDPDNETDPFHNIWDKLDGFVPAHFLGWYLKTLMIRDWWMCMIISVMFEFLEYSLEHQLPNFSECWWDHWIMDVLVCNGLGIYCGMKTLEWLSLKTYKWQGLWNIPTYKGKMKRIAFQFTPYSWVRFEWKPASSLRRWLAVCGIILVFLLAELNTFYLKFVLWMPPEHYLVLLRLVFFVNVGGVAMREIYDFMDDPKPHKKLGPQAWLVAAITATELLIVVKYDPHTLTLSLPFYISQCWTLGSVLALTWTVWRFFLRDITLRYKETRWQKWQNKDDQGSTVGNGDQHPLGLDEDLLGPGVAEGEGAPTPN","23 hours (vs 7h for spadin)",[17326,17330,17334,17337],{"name":17327,"dose":17328,"frequency":1801,"route":17329},"Preclinical Antidepressant Studies (Mouse)","3-4 mcg/kg","Intraperitoneal (IP)",{"name":17331,"dose":17332,"frequency":1801,"route":17333},"Preclinical Oral Studies (Mouse)","1 mg/kg","Oral gavage",{"name":17335,"dose":17336,"frequency":1801,"route":311},"Research Protocol (Human Equivalent - Theoretical)","50-100 mcg",{"name":17338,"dose":11363,"frequency":1801,"route":311},"Research Protocol (Conservative)",[17340,17341,17342,17343],"PE 22-28","PE22-28","spadin analog","TREK-1 channel inhibitor peptide",[17345,17346,15531,17347],"Antidepressant research","TREK-1 (KCNK2) potassium channel modulation","Psychiatric disorders",{"human":23,"animal":17349,"inVitro":17350,"uncertain":17351},"In mice, shortened spadin analogs including PE 22-28 showed better TREK-1 channel inhibition and in-vivo stability than the parent peptide spadin, and produced antidepressant-like activity in behavioral tests (for example, the forced swim test).","Electrophysiological assays in cell systems show PE 22-28 inhibits TREK-1 background potassium channels; TREK-1 is of interest in depression because its genetic deletion produces antidepressant-like phenotypes.","Any antidepressant efficacy in humans is entirely speculative; no human clinical trials exist, and the 'sexual wellness' categorization seen in some retail listings reflects marketing, not published research.",[17353],{"finding":17354,"source":17355,"year":498,"link":17356,"evidenceLevel":50},"Shortened spadin analogs (including PE 22-28) displayed better TREK-1 inhibition and in-vivo stability than spadin, with antidepressant-like activity in mouse behavioral tests.","Preclinical study (Frontiers in Pharmacology)","https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5601071/","Evidence is exclusively preclinical: no human studies, no pharmacokinetic or safety data in humans; claims of mood or libido benefits are speculative.","PE 22-28 is a shortened analog of spadin, a peptide ligand related to the sortilin/neurotensin receptor pathway; it blocks TREK-1 (KCNK2) two-pore-domain potassium channels. Route and dosing for research use are not standardized in published literature.",[17360,17363],{"question":17361,"answer":17362},"Has PE-22-28 been tested in humans?","No. All published data are from in-vitro and mouse studies; no human clinical trials have been conducted.",{"question":17364,"answer":17365},"Why is TREK-1 a target of interest?","TREK-1 is a background potassium channel implicated in mood regulation; inhibiting it produces antidepressant-like effects in animal models.",{"id":7750,"name":17367,"slug":17368,"description":17369,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":15,"views":6627,"shortDescription":17370,"researchStatus":17371,"peptideBenefits":17372,"benefits":17418,"peptideSideEffects":17445,"sideEffects":17476,"dosage":16617,"mechanism":17492,"safetyNote":17493,"athleteWarning":17494,"chemicalMakeup":17495,"citations":17496,"research":17627,"statsCache":17628,"imageUrl":17630,"molecularWeight":17631,"molecularFormula":17632,"pubchemId":17633,"sequence":17634,"halfLife":16632,"administrationRoute":5799,"casNumber":17635,"smiles":17636,"totalMentions":8063,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"protocols":17637,"aliases":17659,"researchAreas":17663,"evidence":17666,"keyStudies":17671,"limitations":17678,"pharmacology":17679,"faqs":17680,"lastReviewed":359},"Selank","selank","Selank is a synthetic peptide developed in Russia that combines anti-anxiety effects with cognitive enhancement — without the sedation or addiction risk of traditional anti-anxiety medications. **What makes it unique?** Selank is based on tuftsin, a natural immune-regulating peptide in your body, with an added sequence to make it more stable. This gives it a dual action: it calms anxiety while sharpening mental function. **What the research shows:** • Reduces anxiety without causing drowsiness or impairment • Increases BDNF (brain-derived neurotrophic factor) — a protein crucial for learning and memory • May help with focus, memory consolidation, and mental clarity • Shows immune-modulating properties • Can reduce symptoms of alcohol withdrawal **How it works:** Selank influences multiple neurotransmitter systems including serotonin and dopamine, but in a balancing way rather than overwhelming them like some pharmaceuticals. **Typical use:** Usually administered as a nasal spray for direct brain delivery, though injectable forms exist. **Important to know:** Selank is approved in Russia for anxiety and cognitive disorders but is not FDA-approved in the United States. Research is promising but primarily from Russian institutions. --- **Sources:** Seredenin SB, et al. (2019) Bulletin of Experimental Biology and Medicine. DOI:10.1007/s10517-019-04588-9 | Zozulya AA, et al. 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study",[17477,17478,17479,17480,17481,17482,17483,17484,17485,17486,17487,17488,17489,17490,17491],{"id":10634,"sideEffect":17447,"description":23,"severity":2597,"frequency":4629,"source":24,"sourceType":24,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":23,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":10639,"sideEffect":17449,"description":23,"severity":4117,"frequency":4117,"source":24,"sourceType":24,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":23,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":4654,"sideEffect":1272,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":4666,"sideEffect":17452,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":383,"sideEffect":17454,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":23,"source":44,"sourceType":44,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":17455,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":385,"sideEffect":17457,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":23,"source":44,"sourceType":44,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":17458,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":6033,"sideEffect":1269,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":4660,"sideEffect":17461,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":5492,"sideEffect":17463,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":39,"sideEffect":16613,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":1229,"sideEffect":405,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":1226,"sideEffect":17467,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":1232,"sideEffect":10506,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":10322,"sideEffect":398,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":15559,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":17470,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":17367,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":15564,"management":17471,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},{"id":10327,"sideEffect":7472,"description":23,"severity":1669,"frequency":6526,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":17473,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":17367,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":17474,"management":17475,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Anxiolytic peptide with cognitive enhancement properties","Research compound only in most countries. Limited long-term safety data available.","WADA BANNED - Prohibited as cognitive enhancer that may provide unfair advantage","Heptapeptide Thr-Lys-Pro-Arg-Pro-Gly-Pro",[17497,17502,17507,17512,17517,17523,17528,17534,17539,17545,17550,17555,17560,17565,17570,17575,17581,17587,17592,17597,17602,17607,17612,17617,17623],{"id":17498,"title":17499,"authors":17500,"journal":165,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":17501},1612,"Effect of Selank on Spontaneous Synaptic Activity of Rat Hippocampal CA1 Neurons.","Povarov IS, Kondratenko RV, Derevyagin VI, Myasoedov NF, Skrebitsky VG","10.1007/s10517-017-3676-3",{"id":17503,"title":17504,"authors":17505,"journal":165,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":17506},1604,"Selank, a Peptide Analog of Tuftsin, Attenuates Aversive Signs of Morphine Withdrawal in Rats.","Konstantinopolsky MA, Chernyakova IV, Kolik LG","10.1007/s10517-022-05624-x",{"id":17508,"title":17509,"authors":17510,"journal":165,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":17511},1605,"Selank, Peptide Analogue of Tuftsin, Protects Against Ethanol-Induced Memory Impairment by Regulating of BDNF Content in the Hippocampus and Prefrontal Cortex in Rats.","Kolik LG, Nadorova AV, Antipova TA, Kruglov SV, Kudrin VS, Durnev AD","10.1007/s10517-019-04588-9",{"id":17513,"title":17514,"authors":17515,"journal":165,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":17516},1606,"Effect of Selank on Morphological Parameters of Rat Liver in Chronic Foot-Shock Stress.","Fomenko EV, Bobyntsev II, Ivanov AV, Belykh AE, Andreeva LA, Myasoedov NF","10.1007/s10517-019-04512-1",{"id":17518,"title":17519,"authors":17520,"journal":17521,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":17522},1607,"The Influence of Selank on the Level of Cytokines Under the Conditions of \"Social\" Stress.","Leonidovna YA, Aleksandrovna SM, Aleksandrovna TA, Aleksandrovna BO, Fedorovich MN, Aleksandrovna AL","Current reviews in clinical and experimental pharmacology","10.2174/1574884715666200704152810",{"id":17524,"title":17525,"authors":17526,"journal":2183,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":17527},1608,"Selank Administration Affects the Expression of Some Genes Involved in GABAergic Neurotransmission.","Volkova A, Shadrina M, Kolomin T, Andreeva L, Limborska S, Myasoedov N, Slominsky P","10.3389/fphar.2016.00031",{"id":17529,"title":17530,"authors":17531,"journal":17532,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":17533},1609,"Functional Connectomic Approach to Studying Selank and Semax Effects.","Panikratova YR, Lebedeva IS, Sokolov OY, Rumshiskaya AD, Kupriyanov DA, Kost NV, Myasoedov NF","Doklady biological sciences : proceedings of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Biological sciences sections","10.1134/S001249662001007X",{"id":17535,"title":17536,"authors":17537,"journal":2183,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":17538},1610,"GABA, Selank, and Olanzapine Affect the Expression of Genes Involved in GABAergic Neurotransmission in IMR-32 Cells.","Filatova E, Kasian A, Kolomin T, Rybalkina E, Alieva A, Andreeva L, Limborska S, Myasoedov N, Pavlova G, Slominsky P, Shadrina M","10.3389/fphar.2017.00089",{"id":17540,"title":17541,"authors":17542,"journal":17543,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":17544},1611,"Peptide Selank Enhances the Effect of Diazepam in Reducing Anxiety in Unpredictable Chronic Mild Stress Conditions in Rats.","Kasian A, Kolomin T, Andreeva L, Bondarenko E, Myasoedov N, Slominsky P, Shadrina M","Behavioural neurology","10.1155/2017/5091027",{"id":17546,"title":17547,"authors":17548,"journal":16419,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":17549},1613,"Peptide-based Anxiolytics: The Molecular Aspects of Heptapeptide Selank Biological Activity.","Vyunova TV, Andreeva L, Shevchenko K, Myasoedov N","10.2174/0929866525666180925144642",{"id":17551,"title":17552,"authors":17553,"journal":17554,"year":3074,"citationType":167},1614,"[Comparison of anticoagulant effects of regulatory proline-containing oligopeptides. Specificity of glyprolines, semax, and selank and potential of their practical application].","Liapina LA, Pastorova VE, Obergan TIu, Samonina GE, Ashmarin IP, Miasoedov NF","Izvestiia Akademii nauk. Seriia biologicheskaia",{"id":17556,"title":17557,"authors":17558,"journal":165,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":17559},1615,"Effect of Selank on Functional State of Rat Hepatocytes under Conditions of Restraint Stress.","Fomenko EV, Bobyntsev II, Kryukov AA, Ivanov AV, Andreeva LA, Myasoedov NF","10.1007/s10517-017-3817-8",{"id":17561,"title":17562,"authors":17563,"journal":11503,"year":1152,"citationType":167,"doi":17564},1616,"The temporary dynamics of inflammation-related genes expression under tuftsin analog Selank action.","Kolomin T, Morozova M, Volkova A, Shadrina M, Andreeva L, Slominsky P, Limborska S, Myasoedov N","10.1016/j.molimm.2013.11.002",{"id":17566,"title":17567,"authors":17568,"journal":15638,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":17569},1617,"[Optimization of the treatment of anxiety disorders with selank].","Medvedev VE, Tereshchenko ON, Kost NV, Ter-Israelyan AY, Gushanskaya EV, Chobanu IK, Sokolov OY, Myasoedov NF","10.17116/jnevro20151156133-40",{"id":17571,"title":17572,"authors":17573,"journal":165,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":17574},1618,"State of Colon Microbiota in Rats during Chronic Restraint Stress and Selank Treatment.","Mukhina AY, Medvedeva OA, Svishcheva MV, Shevchenko AV, Efremova NN, Bobyntsev II, Kalutskii PV, Andreeva LA, Myasoedov NF","10.1007/s10517-019-04496-y",{"id":17576,"title":17577,"authors":17578,"journal":17579,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":17580},1619,"Atrial fibrillation-associated electrical remodelling in human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived atrial cardiomyocytes: a novel pathway for antiarrhythmic therapy development.","Seibertz F, Rubio T, Springer R, Popp F, Ritter M, Liutkute A, Bartelt L, Stelzer L, Haghighi F, Pietras J, Windel H, Pedrosa NDI, Rapedius M, Doering Y, Solano R, Hindmarsh R, Shi R, Tiburcy M, Bruegmann T, Kutschka I, Streckfuss-Bömeke K, Kensah G, Cyganek L, Zimmermann WH, Voigt N","Cardiovascular research","10.1093/cvr/cvad143",{"id":17582,"title":17583,"authors":17584,"journal":17585,"year":1122,"citationType":167,"doi":17586},1620,"Expression of inflammation-related genes in mouse spleen under tuftsin analog Selank.","Kolomin T, Shadrina M, Andreeva L, Slominsky P, Limborska S, Myasoedov N","Regulatory peptides","10.1016/j.regpep.2011.05.001",{"id":17588,"title":17589,"authors":17590,"journal":165,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":17591},1621,"Morphological Changes in the Large Intestine of Rats Subjected to Chronic Restraint Stress and Treated with Selank.","Mukhina AY, Mishina ES, Bobyntsev II, Medvedeva OA, Svishcheva MV, Kalutskii PV, Andreeva LA, Myasoedov NF","10.1007/s10517-020-04868-9",{"id":17593,"title":17594,"authors":17595,"journal":17532,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":17596},1622,"Peptides semax and selank affect the behavior of rats with 6-OHDA induced PD-like parkinsonism.","Slominsky PA, Shadrina MI, Kolomin TA, Stavrovskaya AV, Filatova EV, Andreeva LA, Illarioshkin SN, Myasoedov NF","10.1134/S0012496617030048",{"id":17598,"title":17599,"authors":17600,"journal":15864,"year":173,"citationType":167,"doi":17601},1623,"Selank and short peptides of the tuftsin family in the regulation of adaptive behavior in stress.","Kozlovskaya MM, Kozlovskii II, Val'dman EA, Seredenin SB","10.1023/a:1025988519919",{"id":17603,"title":17604,"authors":17605,"journal":15864,"year":173,"citationType":167,"doi":17606},1624,"The optimizing action of the synthetic peptide Selank on a conditioned active avoidance reflex in rats.","Kozlovskii II, Danchev ND","10.1023/a:1024444321191",{"id":17608,"title":17609,"authors":17610,"journal":165,"year":243,"citationType":167,"doi":17611},1625,"Seasonal effects of Selank on the behavior of hibernating animals.","Semenova TP, Kozlovskaya MM, Zuikov AV, Kozlovskii II, Andreeva LA","10.1007/s10517-006-0060-0",{"id":17613,"title":17614,"authors":17615,"journal":165,"year":203,"citationType":167,"doi":17616},1626,"The inhibitory effect of Selank on enkephalin-degrading enzymes as a possible mechanism of its anxiolytic activity.","Zozulya AA, Kost NV, Yu Sokolov O, Gabaeva MV, Grivennikov IA, Andreeva LN, Zolotarev YA, Ivanov SV, Andryushchenko AV, Myasoedov NF, Smulevich AB","10.1023/a:1017979514274",{"id":17618,"title":17619,"authors":17620,"journal":17621,"year":203,"citationType":167,"doi":17622},1627,"[Semax and selank inhibit the enkephalin-degrading enzymes from human serum]].","Kost NV, Sokolov OIu, Gabaeva MV, Grivennikov IA, Andreeva LA, Miasoedov NF, Zozulia AA","Bioorganicheskaia khimiia","10.1023/a:1011373002885",{"id":17624,"title":17625,"authors":17626,"journal":15638,"year":1152,"citationType":167},1628,"[A comparison of the anxiolytic effect and tolerability of selank and phenazepam in the treatment of anxiety disorders].","Medvedev VE, Tereshchenko ON, Israelian AIu, Chobanu IK, Kost NV, Sokolov OIu, Miasoedov NF",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":8063,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":17629},"2026-01-05T22:12:11.072988","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/selank.webp","751.87","C33H57N11O9","11765106","Thr-Lys-Pro-Arg-Pro-Gly-Pro","129954-34-3","C[C@H]([C@@H](C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCCN)C(=O)N1CCC[C@H]1C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCN=C(N)N)C(=O)N2CCC[C@H]2C(=O)NCC(=O)N3CCC[C@H]3C(=O)O)N)O",[17638,17641,17645,17649,17653,17656],{"name":17639,"dose":17640,"frequency":1801,"route":7056},"Mild anxiety relief","250mcg daily",{"name":17642,"dose":17643,"frequency":17644,"route":7056},"Moderate anxiety/cognitive enhancement","250mcg twice daily","Morning and evening",{"name":17646,"dose":17647,"frequency":17648,"route":7056},"Intensive anxiety/stress management","500mcg daily","Divided doses",{"name":17650,"dose":17651,"frequency":17652,"route":7056},"Cognitive enhancement/nootropic use","250-350mcg daily","Morning only",{"name":17654,"dose":17643,"frequency":17655,"route":7056},"PTSD/trauma support","Consistent timing",{"name":17657,"dose":17640,"frequency":17658,"route":7056},"Immune support during stress","Once daily for 2-4 weeks",[17660,17661,17634,17662],"Selank (research name)","tuftsin analog","Selank amidate (variant)",[16640,17664,17665,4983],"GABAergic modulation","Cognition",{"human":17667,"animal":17668,"inVitro":17669,"uncertain":17670},"Russian clinical studies report anxiolytic efficacy of Selank in generalized anxiety disorder and neurasthenia, with tolerability comparable to the benzodiazepine phenazepam in a comparative study; the trials are small and published in Russian-language journals.","Rodent studies show anxiolytic-like effects and modulation of GABAergic and monoaminergic systems; Selank also displays immunomodulatory activity.","Laboratory studies indicate Selank affects GABA-A receptor function/expression and modulates neuropeptide metabolism; the precise molecular mechanism is not fully established.","The exact mechanism of anxiolysis is unresolved; clinical data come mainly from Russian-language studies with limited international replication, and there is no FDA-approved use.",[17672,17674],{"finding":17673,"source":6129,"year":229,"link":16651,"evidenceLevel":46},"Selank showed efficacy and possible mechanisms of action in the therapy of generalized anxiety disorders and neurasthenia.",{"finding":17675,"source":17676,"year":1152,"link":17677,"evidenceLevel":46},"Comparative study found the anxiolytic effect and tolerability of Selank comparable to phenazepam in anxiety disorders.","Comparative clinical study (Zhurnal Nevrologii i Psikhiatrii, Russian-language)","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25176261/","Small samples, Russian-language publications with limited English abstracts, no large international randomized controlled trials; long-term safety data are sparse; outside Russia it is sold only as an unregulated research product.","Selank is a synthetic heptapeptide (Thr-Lys-Pro-Arg-Pro-Gly-Pro) derived from tuftsin; intranasal administration is typical in clinical studies. Its anxiolytic action is thought to involve GABAergic modulation; pharmacokinetics (including half-life) are not well characterized in published literature.",[17681,17684],{"question":17682,"answer":17683},"Is Selank approved by the FDA?","No. It is not FDA-approved; it has been studied in Russia, where it has been used clinically for anxiety, but international regulatory approval is lacking.",{"question":17685,"answer":17686},"How is Selank taken?","In clinical studies it is typically given intranasally; research products are also sold for laboratory use, with no standardized approved dosing.",{"id":7755,"name":17688,"slug":17689,"description":17690,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":15,"views":2541,"shortDescription":17691,"researchStatus":17692,"peptideBenefits":17693,"benefits":17733,"peptideSideEffects":17758,"sideEffects":17775,"dosage":16688,"mechanism":17784,"safetyNote":17493,"athleteWarning":17785,"chemicalMakeup":17786,"citations":17787,"research":17913,"statsCache":17914,"imageUrl":17916,"molecularWeight":17917,"molecularFormula":17918,"pubchemId":17919,"sequence":17920,"halfLife":16706,"administrationRoute":5799,"casNumber":17921,"smiles":17922,"totalMentions":5134,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"protocols":17923,"aliases":17945,"researchAreas":17948,"evidence":17951,"keyStudies":17956,"limitations":17961,"pharmacology":17962,"faqs":17963,"lastReviewed":359},"Semax","semax","Semax is a synthetic brain-boosting peptide developed in Russia, derived from a fragment of ACTH (a hormone that regulates stress response). It's one of the most well-researched nootropics, approved in Russia for stroke recovery and cognitive disorders. **What makes it special?** Semax increases BDNF (brain-derived neurotrophic factor) — essentially \"fertilizer\" for your brain that promotes the growth of new neurons and strengthens existing connections. **What the research shows:** • Enhances memory, focus, and learning capacity • Provides neuroprotection against oxidative stress and ischemia • May help with stroke recovery and optic nerve diseases • Shows antidepressant-like effects in studies • Supports nerve regeneration **How it works:** Semax modulates dopamine and serotonin systems while boosting BDNF. Unlike stimulants, it enhances cognition without causing jitters or crashes. **Typical use:** Administered as a nasal spray (usually 0.1% solution) for rapid absorption into the brain. Effects typically felt within 15-20 minutes. **N-Acetyl Semax:** An enhanced version with better blood-brain barrier penetration and potentially stronger effects. **Important to know:** Approved in Russia but not FDA-approved in the US. Research is promising but mostly from Russian institutions. --- **Sources:** Ashmarin IP, et al. (1997) Neuroscience and Behavioral Physiology | Dolotov OV, et al. (2006) Neuroscience","Nootropic peptide for cognitive enhancement and neuroprotection","Research compound - Neuropeptide (approved in Russia)",[17694,17695,17696,17697,17698,17700,17701,17704,17707,17708,17709,17711,17713,17715,17717,17719,17720,17722,17724,17727,17729,17730,17731,17732],{"id":9439,"benefit":1653,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":9462,"benefit":957,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":9725,"benefit":1648,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":9730,"benefit":17380,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":9735,"benefit":17699,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Focus enhancement",{"id":9740,"benefit":17401,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":6883,"benefit":17702,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":17703,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},"BDNF/NGF Modulation: 1.4-fold BDNF increase, 3-fold exon III BDNF mRNA","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16996037/",{"id":6887,"benefit":17705,"benefitCategory":23,"source":44,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":17706,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},"Stroke Rehabilitation: Accelerated functional recovery","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29798983/",{"id":693,"benefit":17394,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},{"id":700,"benefit":957,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},{"id":706,"benefit":17710,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},"Improves memory and attention",{"id":713,"benefit":17712,"benefitCategory":23,"source":600,"verified":28},"Stroke recovery.",{"id":9433,"benefit":17714,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Enhanced focus and concentration",{"id":9468,"benefit":17716,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"ADHD symptom relief",{"id":9473,"benefit":17718,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Brain fog reduction",{"id":11435,"benefit":15766,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":6537,"benefit":17721,"benefitCategory":5879,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},"Accelerated neurological function restoration",{"id":6543,"benefit":17723,"benefitCategory":16935,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},"Increased plasma BDNF levels",{"id":668,"benefit":17725,"benefitCategory":17726,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},"Improved motor performance","motor function",{"id":397,"benefit":17728,"benefitCategory":5879,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},"Anti-amyloid aggregation 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analog with nootropic and neuroprotective effects","Not WADA banned - may be safe for competitive athletes, but verify current regulations","Heptapeptide Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro",[17788,17792,17797,17803,17809,17815,17821,17826,17831,17836,17842,17847,17849,17854,17856,17861,17866,17871,17877,17879,17884,17889,17894,17899,17904,17909,17911],{"id":6259,"title":17789,"authors":155,"journal":15795,"year":465,"citationType":158,"doi":17790,"researchPaperId":17791},"Semax: Nootropic and Neuroprotective Properties","10.1007/s11055-021-01121-x","pubmed_34418946",{"id":589,"title":17793,"authors":155,"journal":17794,"year":465,"citationType":158,"doi":17795,"researchPaperId":17796},"Semax in Cognitive Enhancement: Clinical Evidence","Neurochemical Journal","10.1134/S1819712420040091","pubmed_33418449",{"id":17798,"title":17799,"authors":17800,"journal":17801,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":17802},1654,"Semax peptide targets the μ opioid receptor gene Oprm1 to promote deubiquitination and functional recovery after spinal cord injury in female mice.","Liu R, Chen Y, Huang H, Li X, Lv J, Jiang L, Jiang H, Wu C, Chen W, Xu H, Zhu Z, Cai H, Xiao J, Yin L, Ni W","British journal of pharmacology","10.1111/bph.70122",{"id":17804,"title":17805,"authors":17806,"journal":17807,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":17808},1655,"Semax, synthetic ACTH(4-10) analogue, attenuates behavioural and neurochemical alterations following early-life fluvoxamine exposure in white rats.","Glazova NY, Manchenko DM, Volodina MA, Merchieva SA, Andreeva LA, Kudrin VS, Myasoedov NF, Levitskaya NG","Neuropeptides","10.1016/j.npep.2020.102114",{"id":17810,"title":17811,"authors":17812,"journal":17813,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":17814},1656,"Semax, a Synthetic Regulatory Peptide, Affects Copper-Induced Abeta Aggregation and Amyloid Formation in Artificial Membrane Models.","Sciacca MFM, Naletova I, Giuffrida ML, Attanasio F","ACS chemical neuroscience","10.1021/acschemneuro.1c00707",{"id":17816,"title":17817,"authors":17818,"journal":17819,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":17820},1657,"Semax, a Copper Chelator Peptide, Decreases the Cu(II)-Catalyzed ROS Production and Cytotoxicity of aβ by Metal Ion Stripping and Redox Silencing.","Tomasello MF, Di Rosa MC, Naletova I, Sciacca MFM, Giuffrida A, Maccarrone G, Attanasio F","Bioinorganic chemistry and applications","10.1155/bca/4226220",{"id":17822,"title":17823,"authors":17824,"journal":165,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":17825},1658,"Effects of Semax on the Default Mode Network of the Brain.","Lebedeva IS, Panikratova YR, Sokolov OY, Kupriyanov DA, Rumshiskaya AD, Kost NV, Myasoedov NF","10.1007/s10517-018-4234-3",{"id":17827,"title":17828,"authors":17829,"journal":15199,"year":1105,"citationType":167,"doi":17830},1659,"Semax and Pro-Gly-Pro activate the transcription of neurotrophins and their receptor genes after cerebral ischemia.","Dmitrieva VG, Povarova OV, Skvortsova VI, Limborska SA, Myasoedov NF, Dergunova LV","10.1007/s10571-009-9432-0",{"id":17832,"title":17833,"authors":17834,"journal":1145,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":17835},1660,"Antidepressant-like and antistress effects of the ACTH(4-10) synthetic analogs Semax and Melanotan II on male rats in a model of chronic unpredictable stress.","Inozemtseva LS, Yatsenko KA, Glazova NY, Kamensky AA, Myasoedov NF, Levitskaya NG, Grivennikov IA, Dolotov OV","10.1016/j.ejphar.2024.177068",{"id":17837,"title":17838,"authors":17839,"journal":17840,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":17841},1661,"Semax, an analog of ACTH((4-7)), regulates expression of immune response genes during ischemic brain injury in rats.","Medvedeva EV, Dmitrieva VG, Limborska SA, Myasoedov NF, Dergunova LV","Molecular genetics and genomics : MGG","10.1007/s00438-017-1297-1",{"id":17843,"title":17844,"authors":17845,"journal":2195,"year":243,"citationType":167,"doi":17846},1662,"Semax, an ACTH(4-10) analogue with nootropic properties, activates dopaminergic and serotoninergic brain systems in rodents.","Eremin KO, Kudrin VS, Saransaari P, Oja SS, Grivennikov IA, Myasoedov NF, Rayevsky KS","10.1007/s11064-005-8826-8",{"id":17848,"title":17530,"authors":17531,"journal":17532,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":17533},1663,{"id":17850,"title":17851,"authors":17852,"journal":5518,"year":3074,"citationType":167,"doi":17853},1664,"Semax, an analogue of adrenocorticotropin (4-10), binds specifically and increases levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor protein in rat basal forebrain.","Dolotov OV, Karpenko EA, Seredenina TS, Inozemtseva LS, Levitskaya NG, Zolotarev YA, Kamensky AA, Grivennikov IA, Engele J, Myasoedov NF","10.1111/j.1471-4159.2006.03658.x",{"id":17855,"title":17552,"authors":17553,"journal":17554,"year":3074,"citationType":167},1665,{"id":17857,"title":17858,"authors":17859,"journal":17532,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":17860},1666,"Semax prevents learning and memory inhibition by heavy metals.","Inozemtsev AN, Bokieva SB, Karpukhina OV, Gumargalieva KZ, Kamensky AA, Myasoedov NF","10.1134/S0012496616030066",{"id":17862,"title":17863,"authors":17864,"journal":15638,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":17865},1667,"[The efficacy of semax in the tretament of patients at different stages of ischemic stroke].","Gusev EI, Martynov MY, Kostenko EV, Petrova LV, Bobyreva SN","10.17116/jnevro20181183261-68",{"id":17867,"title":17868,"authors":17869,"journal":2029,"year":3074,"citationType":167,"doi":17870},1668,"Semax, an analog of ACTH(4-10) with cognitive effects, regulates BDNF and trkB expression in the rat hippocampus.","Dolotov OV, Karpenko EA, Inozemtseva LS, Seredenina TS, Levitskaya NG, Rozyczka J, Dubynina EV, Novosadova EV, Andreeva LA, Alfeeva LY, Kamensky AA, Grivennikov IA, Myasoedov NF, Engele J","10.1016/j.brainres.2006.07.108",{"id":17872,"title":17873,"authors":17874,"journal":17875,"year":1152,"citationType":167,"doi":17876},1669,"The peptide semax affects the expression of genes related to the immune and vascular systems in rat brain focal ischemia: genome-wide transcriptional analysis.","Medvedeva EV, Dmitrieva VG, Povarova OV, Limborska SA, Skvortsova VI, Myasoedov NF, Dergunova LV","BMC genomics","10.1186/1471-2164-15-228",{"id":17878,"title":16694,"authors":16695,"journal":16696,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":16697},1670,{"id":17880,"title":17881,"authors":17882,"journal":17042,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":17883},1671,"Novel Insights into the Protective Properties of ACTH((4-7))PGP (Semax) Peptide at the Transcriptome Level Following Cerebral Ischaemia-Reperfusion in Rats.","Filippenkov IB, Stavchansky VV, Denisova AE, Yuzhakov VV, Sevan'kaeva LE, Sudarkina OY, Dmitrieva VG, Gubsky LV, Myasoedov NF, Limborska SA, Dergunova LV","10.3390/genes11060681",{"id":17885,"title":17886,"authors":17887,"journal":165,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":17888},1672,"Experimental Substantiation of Application of Semax as a Modulator of Immune Reaction on the Model of \"Social\" Stress.","Samotrueva MA, Yasenyavskaya AL, Murtalieva VK, Bashkina OA, Myasoedov NF, Andreeva LA, Karaulov AV","10.1007/s10517-019-04434-y",{"id":17890,"title":17891,"authors":17892,"journal":9779,"year":290,"citationType":167,"doi":17893},1673,"Semax, an analogue of adrenocorticotropin (4-10), is a potential agent for the treatment of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and Rett syndrome.","Tsai SJ","10.1016/j.mehy.2006.07.017",{"id":17895,"title":17896,"authors":17897,"journal":516,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":17898},1674,"Brain Protein Expression Profile Confirms the Protective Effect of the ACTH((4-7))PGP Peptide (Semax) in a Rat Model of Cerebral Ischemia-Reperfusion.","Sudarkina OY, Filippenkov IB, Stavchansky VV, Denisova AE, Yuzhakov VV, Sevan'kaeva LE, Valieva LV, Remizova JA, Dmitrieva VG, Gubsky LV, Myasoedov NF, Limborska SA, Dergunova LV","10.3390/ijms22126179",{"id":17900,"title":17901,"authors":17902,"journal":17532,"year":260,"citationType":167,"doi":17903},1675,"Semax corrects brain dysfunction caused by prenatal introduction of valproic acid.","Malyshev AV, Razumkina EV, Dubynin VA, Myasoedov NF","10.1134/S0012496613030046",{"id":17905,"title":17906,"authors":17907,"journal":165,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":17908},1676,"The Effect of Peptide Semax, an ACTH(4-10) Analogue, on Intracellular Calcium Dynamics in Rat Brain Neurons.","Kolbaev SN, Sharonova IN, Skrebitsky VG","10.1007/s10517-025-06501-z",{"id":17910,"title":17619,"authors":17620,"journal":17621,"year":203,"citationType":167,"doi":17622},1677,{"id":17912,"title":17594,"authors":17595,"journal":17532,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":17596},1678,[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":5134,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":17915},"2026-01-05T22:12:15.588190","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/semax.webp","813.93","C37H51N9O10S","9811102","Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro","80714-61-0","CSCC[C@@H](C(=O)N[C@@H](CCC(=O)O)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC1=CN=CN1)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC2=CC=CC=C2)C(=O)N3CCC[C@H]3C(=O)NCC(=O)N4CCC[C@H]4C(=O)O)N",[17924,17928,17932,17936,17940],{"name":17925,"dose":17926,"frequency":6187,"route":17927},"Cognitive enhancement (healthy adults)","300-600mcg","Intranasal spray/drops",{"name":17929,"dose":17930,"frequency":17931,"route":17927},"Learning and memory support","600-900mcg","2-3 times daily during study periods",{"name":17933,"dose":17934,"frequency":6191,"route":17935},"Recovery from brain injury","900-1500mcg","Intranasal drops (clinical supervision)",{"name":17937,"dose":17938,"frequency":17939,"route":6089},"Anti-fatigue cognitive support","400-800mcg","Single morning dose",{"name":17941,"dose":17942,"frequency":17943,"route":17944},"Research/experimental protocols","250-1000mcg","Variable based on study design","Standardized intranasal delivery",[17688,17946,17920,17947],"ACTH(4-7) analog","N-acetyl semax heptapeptide",[1648,17949,17950,957],"Stroke rehabilitation","Pediatric ADHD (investigational)",{"human":17952,"animal":17953,"inVitro":17954,"uncertain":17955},"Semax is a registered drug in Russia used for cognitive disorders and stroke recovery, with clinical studies published largely in the Russian-language literature. Available English-indexed human data are limited, and the peptide is not FDA-approved. Controlled trials in pediatric ADHD and post-stroke cognitive recovery have been reported, mostly in Russian-language journals.","Rodent studies demonstrate semax upregulates BDNF and NGF expression, protects against experimental ischemia, and modulates hippocampal gene expression under acute stress (2021).","Cell-based studies report semax-induced increases in BDNF/NGF expression in neuronal and glial cultures.","Nootropic claims in healthy users remain largely unproven in Western-registered trials; the evidence base is dominated by Russian studies whose protocols and endpoints are not always independently verified.",[17957],{"finding":17958,"source":17959,"year":465,"link":17960,"evidenceLevel":50},"Semax administration corrected stress-induced gene-expression patterns in the rat hippocampus, with more than 1,500 differentially expressed genes identified after acute restraint stress.","preclinical study (International Journal of Molecular Sciences)","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34576218/","Most clinical evidence is published in Russian journals with limited English abstracts, which hampers independent verification. There are no FDA-reviewed trials, long-term safety data in Western populations are unestablished, and use for cognitive enhancement in healthy people is off-label.","Administered intranasally (the registered Russian route); a short half-life requiring repeated dosing. Mechanism proposed via melanocortin receptor modulation with upregulation of BDNF/NGF and neuroprotective signaling.",[17964,17967,17970],{"question":17965,"answer":17966},"Is Semax FDA-approved?","No. It is a registered drug in Russia for cognitive and cerebrovascular disorders but is not approved by the FDA or EMA.",{"question":17968,"answer":17969},"What is Semax made of?","It is a synthetic heptapeptide (Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro) derived from the ACTH(4-7) fragment, stabilized by a prolyl-glycyl-proline sequence.",{"question":17971,"answer":17972},"Does Semax improve cognition?","Russian clinical studies report cognitive benefits in stroke and cognitive-disorder patients, but the evidence is mostly in Russian-language literature; no FDA-reviewed trials confirm cognitive enhancement in healthy people.","https://cbzugwmbrmdvvkvtjpnn.supabase.co/storage/v1/object/public/peptide_category_icons/cognitive_enhancement.png",{"id":2486,"slug":17975,"title":17976,"display_order":8,"peptides":17977,"icon":20014},"skin-beauty","Skin & Beauty",[17978,18088,18304,18528,18669,18893,19041,19126,19320,19687,19930],{"id":6259,"name":17979,"slug":17980,"description":17981,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":15,"views":1928,"researchStatus":17982,"peptideBenefits":17983,"benefits":17993,"peptideSideEffects":18000,"sideEffects":18013,"dosage":18020,"mechanism":18021,"safetyNote":3756,"athleteWarning":18022,"chemicalMakeup":18023,"citations":18024,"research":18030,"statsCache":18031,"imageUrl":18033,"molecularWeight":2489,"molecularFormula":18034,"pubchemId":18035,"halfLife":18036,"administrationRoute":18037,"casNumber":18038,"smiles":18039,"totalMentions":532,"dataCompleteness":1916,"hasResearchData":28,"protocols":18040,"aliases":18057,"researchAreas":18062,"evidence":18066,"keyStudies":18071,"limitations":18076,"pharmacology":18077,"faqs":18078,"lastReviewed":359},"AHK-Cu","ahk-cu","AHK-Cu (Alanyl-Histidyl-Lysine Copper) is a copper-binding tripeptide structurally similar to the well-researched GHK-Cu but with an alanine substitution at the N-terminus. Like other copper peptides, AHK-Cu has been investigated for its potential biological activities in tissue repair and regeneration. Copper peptides generally function through their ability to deliver copper ions to tissues, which serves as a cofactor for numerous enzymes involved in connective tissue synthesis and wound healing. Research into AHK-Cu specifically is more limited compared to GHK-Cu, though it shares the fundamental copper-binding tripeptide structure. The peptide may support collagen synthesis, antioxidant enzyme activity, and tissue remodeling processes. AHK-Cu is found in some cosmetic formulations targeting skin regeneration and anti-aging applications. The slight structural modification from GHK may confer different tissue penetration, stability, or receptor binding characteristics. Further research is needed to fully characterize AHK-Cu's specific mechanisms and advantages compared to other copper peptide variants.","Research compound - Copper tripeptide",[17984,17986,17988,17989,17990,17991],{"id":3360,"benefit":17985,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Hair regrowth",{"id":3366,"benefit":17987,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Follicle stimulation",{"id":3372,"benefit":34,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3343,"benefit":3654,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3378,"benefit":3014,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3383,"benefit":17992,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Antioxidant protection",[17994,17995,17996,17997,17998,17999],{"id":3360,"benefit":17985,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3366,"benefit":17987,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3372,"benefit":34,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3343,"benefit":3654,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3378,"benefit":3014,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3383,"benefit":17992,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},[18001,18003,18005,18007,18009,18011],{"id":5102,"sideEffect":18002,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Mild redness",{"id":5095,"sideEffect":18004,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Itching",{"id":5104,"sideEffect":18006,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Irritation",{"id":5097,"sideEffect":18008,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Occasional dryness",{"id":5107,"sideEffect":18010,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Mostly local effects",{"id":5099,"sideEffect":18012,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Rare allergic rash",[18014,18015,18016,18017,18018,18019],{"id":5102,"sideEffect":18002,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":5095,"sideEffect":18004,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":5104,"sideEffect":18006,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":5097,"sideEffect":18008,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":5107,"sideEffect":18010,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":5099,"sideEffect":18012,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Apply topically 1-2 times daily (Research use only)","Copper tripeptide that stimulates hair follicles and promotes tissue repair","Not WADA banned - safe for competitive athletes when used appropriately","Tripeptide AHK (Ala–His–Lys) complexed with copper(II)",[18025],{"id":11435,"title":18026,"authors":18027,"journal":18028,"year":290,"citationType":167,"doi":18029},"The effect of tripeptide-copper complex on human hair growth in vitro.","Pyo HK, Yoo HG, Won CH, Lee SH, Kang YJ, Eun HC, Cho KH, Kim KH","Archives of pharmacal research","10.1007/BF02978833",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":532,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":18032},"2026-01-05T22:12:03.144315","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/ahk-cu.webp","C15H24ClCuN6O4-","168431292","Minutes (topical application)","Topical","682809-81-0","C[C@@H](C(=O)[N-][C@@H](CC1=CNC=N1)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCCN)C(=O)[O-])[NH-].Cl.[Cu+2]",[18041,18045,18048,18052],{"name":18042,"dose":18043,"frequency":11746,"route":18044},"Hair Growth - Scalp Application","0.5-1% solution/serum","Topical to scalp",{"name":18046,"dose":18047,"frequency":11746,"route":18044},"Hair Growth - Combined Protocol","0.3-0.5% AHK-Cu with minoxidil",{"name":18049,"dose":18050,"frequency":11746,"route":18051},"Skin Regeneration - Face/Body","0.3-1% in serum/cream","Topical to skin",{"name":18053,"dose":18054,"frequency":18055,"route":18056},"DIY Formulation","Add 0.3-1% to water phase","Cool-down phase (\u003C40°C)","Custom formulation",[18058,18059,18060,18061],"Alanyl-histidyl-lysine copper","Ala-His-Lys-Cu","AHK-Cu peptide","Copper tripeptide-3",[4011,18063,18064,18065],"Skin and dermal regeneration","Wound healing / tissue repair","Antioxidant and anti-apoptotic signaling",{"human":18067,"animal":18068,"inVitro":18069,"uncertain":18070},"No large, well-controlled human clinical trials specific to AHK-Cu were identified; human evidence is essentially limited to cosmetic-formulation experience and extrapolation from the closely related GHK-Cu literature.","Published animal studies specifically on AHK-Cu were not identified in this review; most preclinical expectations are borrowed from research on the related copper peptide GHK-Cu.","An in-vitro study using human hair follicles found that a copper-tripeptide complex (the class to which AHK-Cu belongs) stimulated hair growth, supporting the peptide's proposed role in hair biology.","Claims of hair regrowth, anti-aging, and dermal regeneration for AHK-Cu specifically are largely extrapolated from GHK-Cu research; the biological consequences of the alanine-for-glycine substitution remain poorly characterized.",[18072],{"finding":18073,"source":18074,"year":290,"link":18075,"evidenceLevel":343},"In an in-vitro assay, a copper-tripeptide complex increased human hair-follicle growth, providing early evidence for copper-peptide effects on hair biology.","In-vitro study (Archives of Pharmacological Research)","https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02978833","Published research that isolates AHK-Cu from the far more extensively studied GHK-Cu is sparse. No human clinical trials of AHK-Cu were found; most marketed benefits (hair, skin) rest on in-vitro data and extrapolation, and commercial naming of 'copper tripeptide' products is inconsistent across sources.","AHK-Cu is a copper-binding tripeptide (Ala-His-Lys complexed with Cu2+) proposed to deliver copper to tissues; no well-characterized human pharmacokinetic data (half-life, dosing) were found in reliable sources.",[18079,18082,18085],{"question":18080,"answer":18081},"Is AHK-Cu the same as GHK-Cu?","No — AHK-Cu differs by one amino acid (alanine instead of glycine at the N-terminus). They share the copper-tripeptide scaffold, but AHK-Cu has far less dedicated research than GHK-Cu.",{"question":18083,"answer":18084},"Does AHK-Cu have FDA approval?","No. AHK-Cu is not an approved drug; it appears in cosmetic and research contexts only.",{"question":18086,"answer":18087},"What evidence supports AHK-Cu for hair growth?","Only in-vitro work with copper-tripeptide complexes on human hair follicles was identified; there are no clinical trials demonstrating hair regrowth in humans.",{"id":2290,"name":18089,"slug":18090,"description":18091,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":15,"views":365,"researchStatus":18092,"peptideBenefits":18093,"benefits":18112,"peptideSideEffects":18121,"sideEffects":18138,"dosage":18145,"mechanism":18146,"safetyNote":18147,"athleteWarning":18148,"chemicalMakeup":18149,"citations":18150,"research":18257,"statsCache":18258,"imageUrl":18260,"molecularWeight":18261,"molecularFormula":18262,"pubchemId":18263,"sequence":18264,"halfLife":18265,"administrationRoute":18037,"casNumber":18266,"smiles":18267,"totalMentions":294,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"aliases":18268,"researchAreas":18274,"evidence":18278,"keyStudies":18282,"limitations":18295,"pharmacology":18296,"faqs":18297,"lastReviewed":359},"Argireline","argireline","Argireline (Acetyl Hexapeptide-3) is a pioneering cosmetic peptide that reduces expression wrinkles by modulating neuromuscular activity. Often called \"topical Botox,\" Argireline inhibits SNARE complex formation required for neurotransmitter vesicle fusion at the neuromuscular junction. By competing with SNAP-25, the peptide reduces acetylcholine release and subsequent muscle contraction, softening dynamic wrinkles in the forehead, crow's feet, and frown lines. Research demonstrates wrinkle depth reduction of approximately 30% after 30 days of twice-daily application in clinical studies. Unlike botulinum toxin injections that paralyze muscles, Argireline produces subtle, gradual relaxation through topical application. The peptide is one of the most clinically studied cosmetic peptides with established safety and efficacy. It works best in combination with other anti-aging ingredients including hydrators and antioxidants. Argireline represents a non-invasive alternative for consumers seeking wrinkle reduction without medical procedures. The peptide is widely incorporated into serums, creams, and targeted treatments for aging skin.","Cosmetic ingredient - Hexapeptide",[18094,18096,18098,18100,18103,18106,18108,18110],{"id":3439,"benefit":18095,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Wrinkle reduction",{"id":3444,"benefit":18097,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Expression line smoothing",{"id":3892,"benefit":18099,"benefitCategory":6,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},"48.9% anti-wrinkle efficacy vs 0% placebo",{"id":3896,"benefit":18101,"benefitCategory":18102,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},"Significant decrease in skin roughness parameters","skin texture",{"id":3902,"benefit":18104,"benefitCategory":18105,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},"Extended botulinum toxin duration for blepharospasm","cosmetic",{"id":3449,"benefit":18107,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Non-invasive anti-aging",{"id":3455,"benefit":18109,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Muscle relaxation",{"id":404,"benefit":18111,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Skin smoothing",[18113,18114,18115,18116,18117,18118,18119,18120],{"id":3439,"benefit":18095,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3444,"benefit":18097,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3892,"benefit":18099,"benefitCategory":6,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":3896,"benefit":18101,"benefitCategory":18102,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":3902,"benefit":18104,"benefitCategory":18105,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":3449,"benefit":18107,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3455,"benefit":18109,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":404,"benefit":18111,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},[18122,18124,18126,18128,18130,18134],{"id":10666,"sideEffect":18123,"description":23,"severity":2597,"frequency":4629,"source":24,"sourceType":24,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":23,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Generally well tolerated topically",{"id":9433,"sideEffect":18125,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Generally well-tolerated topically",{"id":9422,"sideEffect":18127,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Mild skin irritation",{"id":9428,"sideEffect":18129,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Rare allergic reaction",{"id":474,"sideEffect":120,"description":23,"severity":23,"frequency":18131,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":18132,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":18089,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":18133,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"0.22% in stratum corneum","pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24754410/","Standard topical application",{"id":481,"sideEffect":398,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":117,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":18135,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":18089,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":18136,"management":18137,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23417317/","With application","Discontinue if persistent",[18139,18140,18141,18142,18143,18144],{"id":10666,"sideEffect":18123,"description":23,"severity":2597,"frequency":4629,"source":24,"sourceType":24,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":23,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":9433,"sideEffect":18125,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":9422,"sideEffect":18127,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":9428,"sideEffect":18129,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":474,"sideEffect":120,"description":23,"severity":23,"frequency":18131,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":18132,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":18089,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":18133,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":481,"sideEffect":398,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":117,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":18135,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":18089,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":18136,"management":18137,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"10% topical solution","Reduces expression wrinkles by relaxing facial muscles","Generally considered safe for topical cosmetic use. Limited systemic absorption.","Not WADA banned - topical cosmetic peptide safe for competitive athletes","Hexapeptide Ac-Glu-Glu-Met-Gln-Arg-Arg-NH₂",[18151,18156,18161,18166,18170,18175,18179,18184,18188,18193,18198,18202,18206,18211,18215,18220,18225,18230,18234,18239,18244,18248,18252],{"id":13462,"title":18152,"authors":18153,"journal":18154,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":18155},"Investigating the effects of Argireline in a skin serum containing hyaluronic acids on skin surface wrinkles using the Visia(®) Complexion Analysis camera system for objective skin analysis.","Henseler H","GMS Interdisciplinary plastic and reconstructive surgery DGPW","10.3205/iprs000179",{"id":13465,"title":18157,"authors":18158,"journal":18159,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":18160},"Polydioxanone Bioactive Sutures-Acetyl Hexapeptide-8 (Argireline): An Intelligent System for Controlled Release in Facial Harmonization.","Velazco de Maldonado GJ, Suárez-Vega DV, Miller-Kobisher B, García-Guevara VJ","Journal of cutaneous and aesthetic surgery","10.4103/JCAS.JCAS_34_23",{"id":13467,"title":18162,"authors":18163,"journal":18164,"year":260,"citationType":167,"doi":18165},"The anti-wrinkle efficacy of Argireline.","Wang Y, Wang M, Xiao XS, Huo J, Zhang WD","Journal of cosmetic and laser therapy : official publication of the European Society for Laser Dermatology","10.3109/14764172.2013.769273",{"id":13469,"title":18167,"authors":18168,"journal":18169,"year":1152,"citationType":167},"The study of cellular cytotoxicity of argireline - an anti-aging peptide.","Grosicki M, Latacz G, Szopa A, Cukier A, Kieć-Kononowicz K","Acta biochimica Polonica",{"id":13532,"title":18171,"authors":18172,"journal":18173,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":18174},"Mycobacterium abscessus infection after facial injection of argireline: A case report.","Chen CF, Liu J, Wang SS, Yao YF, Yu B, Hu XP","World journal of clinical cases","10.12998/wjcc.v9.i8.1996",{"id":13535,"title":18176,"authors":18177,"journal":12846,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":18178},"Influence of the modification of the cosmetic peptide Argireline on the affinity toward copper(II) ions.","Wyrzykowski D, Wieczorek R, Kloska A, Errante F, Papini AM, Makowska J","10.1002/psc.3547",{"id":13538,"title":18180,"authors":18181,"journal":18182,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":18183},"Public Interest in Acetyl Hexapeptide-8: Longitudinal Analysis.","Olsson SE, Sreepad B, Lee T, Fasih M, Fijany A","JMIR dermatology","10.2196/54217",{"id":13764,"title":18185,"authors":18186,"journal":18164,"year":260,"citationType":167,"doi":18187},"The anti wrinkle efficacy of synthetic hexapeptide (Argireline) in Chinese Subjects.","Wang Y, Wang M, Xiao XS, Pan P, Li P, Huo J","10.3109/14764172.2012.759234",{"id":13766,"title":18189,"authors":18190,"journal":18191,"year":166,"citationType":167,"doi":18192},"A synthetic hexapeptide (Argireline) with antiwrinkle activity.","Blanes-Mira C, Clemente J, Jodas G, Gil A, Fernández-Ballester G, Ponsati B, Gutierrez L, Pérez-Payá E, Ferrer-Montiel A","International journal of cosmetic science","10.1046/j.1467-2494.2002.00153.x",{"id":13769,"title":18194,"authors":18195,"journal":18196,"year":260,"citationType":167,"doi":18197},"The anti-wrinkle efficacy of argireline, a synthetic hexapeptide, in Chinese subjects: a randomized, placebo-controlled study.","Wang Y, Wang M, Xiao S, Pan P, Li P, Huo J","American journal of clinical dermatology","10.1007/s40257-013-0009-9",{"id":13772,"title":18199,"authors":18200,"journal":1006,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":18201},"Enhanced Skin Permeation of Anti-wrinkle Peptides via Molecular Modification.","Lim SH, Sun Y, Thiruvallur Madanagopal T, Rosa V, Kang L","10.1038/s41598-017-18454-z",{"id":6525,"title":18203,"authors":18204,"journal":18205,"year":458,"citationType":167},"INDIVIDUAL ARTICLE: Real-World Clinical Experience With a Neuro-Peptide Serum in Combination With Botulinum Toxin Type-A Injections.","Lupin M, Bjerring P, Andriessen A, Chantrey J, Fabi SG, Liew S, McDonald C, Xiaolei Q, White S","Journal of drugs in dermatology : JDD",{"id":6528,"title":18207,"authors":18208,"journal":18209,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":18210},"Complications and adverse effects of periocular aesthetic treatments.","Nagendran ST, Ali MJ, Dogru M, Malhotra R","Survey of ophthalmology","10.1016/j.survophthal.2021.04.009",{"id":673,"title":18212,"authors":18213,"journal":18214,"year":290,"citationType":167},"Preparation and stability of cosmetic formulations with an anti-aging peptide.","Ruiz MA, Clares B, Morales ME, Cazalla S, Gallardo V","Journal of cosmetic science",{"id":677,"title":18216,"authors":18217,"journal":18218,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":18219},"Skin scars and wrinkles temporary camouflage in dermatology and oncoesthetics: focus on acetyl hexapeptide-8.","Palmieri B, Noviello A, Corazzari V, Garelli A, Vadala M","La Clinica terapeutica","10.7417/CT.2020.2270",{"id":680,"title":18221,"authors":18222,"journal":18223,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":18224},"3D-bioengineered model of human skeletal muscle tissue with phenotypic features of aging for drug testing purposes.","Mestre R, García N, Patiño T, Guix M, Fuentes J, Valerio-Santiago M, Almiñana N, Sánchez S","Biofabrication","10.1088/1758-5090/ac165b",{"id":14037,"title":18226,"authors":18227,"journal":18228,"year":1152,"citationType":167,"doi":18229},"Iontophoretic skin permeation of peptides: an investigation into the influence of molecular properties, iontophoretic conditions and formulation parameters.","Krishnan G, Roberts MS, Grice J, Anissimov YG, Moghimi HR, Benson HA","Drug delivery and translational research","10.1007/s13346-013-0181-8",{"id":14040,"title":18231,"authors":18232,"journal":3801,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":18233},"BAK and ARG Have Moisturizing, Anti-Inflammatory, Antioxidant, and Antioxidant Bioactivities, in the Zebrafish Model.","Jiang X, Wang W, Wei Y, Cheng W, Li S, Du L, Xu W, Zhang Y","10.1111/jocd.70128",{"id":14043,"title":18235,"authors":18236,"journal":18237,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":18238},"In vitro skin penetration of acetyl hexapeptide-8 from a cosmetic formulation.","Kraeling ME, Zhou W, Wang P, Ogunsola OA","Cutaneous and ocular toxicology","10.3109/15569527.2014.894521",{"id":4119,"title":18240,"authors":18241,"journal":18242,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":18243},"Topical delivery of acetyl hexapeptide-8 from different emulsions: influence of emulsion composition and internal structure.","Hoppel M, Reznicek G, Kählig H, Kotisch H, Resch GP, Valenta C","European journal of pharmaceutical sciences : official journal of the European Federation for Pharmaceutical Sciences","10.1016/j.ejps.2014.12.006",{"id":4121,"title":18245,"authors":18246,"journal":18247,"year":451,"citationType":167},"Combination Tripeptide/Hexapeptide Serum with 1540 nm Nonablative Fractional Laser for the Treatment of Striae Distensae: A Pilot Study.","McGuinn KP, Ross NA, Wang JV, Saedi N","Skinmed",{"id":4363,"title":18249,"authors":18250,"journal":3801,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":18251},"The efficacy study of the combination of tripeptide-10-citrulline and acetyl hexapeptide-3. A prospective, randomized controlled study.","Raikou V, Varvaresou A, Panderi I, Papageorgiou E","10.1111/jocd.12314",{"id":4366,"title":18253,"authors":18254,"journal":18255,"year":260,"citationType":167,"doi":18256},"Pilot study of topical acetyl hexapeptide-8 in the treatment for blepharospasm in patients receiving botulinum toxin therapy.","Lungu C, Considine E, Zahir S, Ponsati B, Arrastia S, Hallett M","European journal of neurology","10.1111/ene.12009",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":294,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":18259},"2026-01-05T22:12:11.899520","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/argireline.webp","888.05","C41H70N14O16","16133648","Ac-EEMQRR-NH2","Minutes (topical)","616204-22-9","CC(=O)N[C@@H](CCC(=O)O)C(=C)N[C@@H](CCC(=O)O)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCSC)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCC(=O)N)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCN=C(N)N)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCN=C(N)N)C(=O)N",[18269,18270,18271,18272,18273],"Acetyl Hexapeptide-8","Acetyl Hexapeptide-3","AH-8","Ac-Glu-Glu-Met-Gln-Arg-Arg-NH2","Argireline acetate",[18275,18276,18277],"Cosmetic anti-wrinkle skincare","Expression-line reduction","SNARE complex / neuromuscular signaling",{"human":18279,"animal":23,"inVitro":18280,"uncertain":18281},"Placebo-controlled cosmetic studies (e.g., Wang et al., Am J Clin Dermatol 2013; J Cosmet Laser Ther 2013, PMID 23464592) report reduced periorbital/facial wrinkle depth after ~30 days of twice-daily topical application of acetyl hexapeptide-8, with magnitude on the order of 30% wrinkle-depth improvement versus baseline. Trials are small, industry-funded, and evaluate cosmetic endpoints rather than medical outcomes.","In cell and ex-vivo models the peptide mimics the N-terminus of SNAP-25 and competes for SNARE complex formation, reducing vesicular acetylcholine release at the neuromuscular junction - the mechanistic basis for its 'topical Botox' positioning.","Claims of equivalence to botulinum toxin injections are marketing hyperbole: topical penetration and effect size are modest, and most evidence comes from manufacturer-supported cosmetic trials with limited independent replication.",[18283,18287,18291],{"finding":18284,"source":18285,"year":260,"link":18286,"evidenceLevel":46},"In Chinese subjects, a randomized controlled study of Argireline cream showed significant reduction in periorbital wrinkle depth/roughness after 4 weeks of twice-daily application versus vehicle.","Randomized, placebo-controlled cosmetic trial (Am J Clin Dermatol)","https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40257-013-0009-9",{"finding":18288,"source":18289,"year":260,"link":18290,"evidenceLevel":46},"A clinical study (J Cosmet Laser Ther) reported measurable wrinkle-depth reduction in crow's-feet area with acetyl hexapeptide-3 after 30 days of treatment.","Clinical cosmetic study (J Cosmet Laser Ther)","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23464592/",{"finding":18292,"source":18293,"year":465,"link":18294,"evidenceLevel":343},"In vitro, acetyl hexapeptide-8 inhibits SNARE-mediated membrane fusion by mimicking SNAP-25, thereby reducing neurotransmitter release and muscle contraction.","In-vitro mechanistic studies (reviewed in neurocosmetics literature)","https://www.mdpi.com/2079-9284/8/3/66","Evidence is confined to cosmetic, mostly small and short-term human studies; no FDA-approved drug indication; effects are subtle and not comparable to injected botulinum toxin; long-term safety data are limited.","Topical cosmetic peptide; no meaningful systemic pharmacokinetics. Mechanism: competes with SNAP-25 for SNARE-complex assembly at the neuromuscular junction, reducing acetylcholine exocytosis and muscle contraction underlying expression wrinkles.",[18298,18301],{"question":18299,"answer":18300},"Is Argireline the same as 'topical Botox'?","It is marketed that way, but evidence shows only modest, reversible softening of expression lines; it is not comparable in potency or duration to injected botulinum toxin.",{"question":18302,"answer":18303},"Does Argireline require a prescription?","No - it is a cosmetic ingredient (INCI: Acetyl Hexapeptide-8) used in over-the-counter skincare formulations, not an FDA-approved drug.",{"id":6334,"name":18305,"slug":18306,"description":18307,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":15,"views":1636,"peptideBenefits":18308,"benefits":18321,"peptideSideEffects":18327,"sideEffects":18333,"dosage":18337,"mechanism":18338,"safetyNote":18339,"citations":18340,"research":18489,"statsCache":18490,"imageUrl":18492,"molecularWeight":18493,"molecularFormula":18494,"pubchemId":18495,"sequence":18496,"halfLife":18497,"administrationRoute":3977,"casNumber":3978,"smiles":3979,"totalMentions":7750,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"aliases":18498,"researchAreas":18503,"evidence":18506,"keyStudies":18511,"limitations":18519,"pharmacology":18520,"faqs":18521,"lastReviewed":359},"Copper Peptides","copper-peptides","Copper Peptides are small protein fragments that bind tightly to copper ions, with GHK-Cu being the most famous and well-researched. Your body naturally produces these peptides, but levels decline significantly as you age. **Why copper matters:** Copper is essential for enzymes involved in wound healing, collagen production, and antioxidant defense. Copper peptides deliver this copper directly to tissues while also sending \"repair\" signals to cells. **What the research shows:** • Stimulate collagen and elastin production for firmer skin • Accelerate wound healing across multiple tissue types • Reduce inflammation and oxidative damage • Can modify expression of over 4,000 genes toward healthier patterns • Support hair follicle health and growth **Where you'll find them:** Widely used in anti-aging skincare serums and creams, wound care products, and hair growth treatments. Available in topical and injectable forms. **Age-related decline:** GHK-Cu levels drop from about 200 ng/mL at age 20 to around 80 ng/mL by age 60. This decline may contribute to slower healing and visible skin aging. **Popular forms:** • GHK-Cu: The most researched copper peptide • AHK-Cu: A variant with an alanine substitution --- **Sources:** Pickart L, et al. (2015) Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. DOI:10.1155/2015/648108 | Pickart L, et al. (2008) Journal of Biomaterials Science. DOI:10.1163/156856208784909435",[18309,18311,18313,18315,18318],{"id":18310,"benefit":3693,"benefitCategory":5028,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},396,{"id":18312,"benefit":3682,"benefitCategory":5017,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},397,{"id":18314,"benefit":3009,"benefitCategory":3649,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},398,{"id":18316,"benefit":3656,"benefitCategory":18317,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},399,"Hair",{"id":18319,"benefit":17992,"benefitCategory":18320,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},400,"Longevity",[18322,18323,18324,18325,18326],{"id":18310,"benefit":3693,"benefitCategory":5028,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":18312,"benefit":3682,"benefitCategory":5017,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":18314,"benefit":3009,"benefitCategory":3649,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":18316,"benefit":3656,"benefitCategory":18317,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":18319,"benefit":17992,"benefitCategory":18320,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},[18328,18329,18331],{"id":13535,"sideEffect":18127,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":5477,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":13538,"sideEffect":18330,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":6892,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Allergic reaction",{"id":13764,"sideEffect":18332,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":5477,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Injection site reactions (SC)",[18334,18335,18336],{"id":13535,"sideEffect":18127,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":5477,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":13538,"sideEffect":18330,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":6892,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":13764,"sideEffect":18332,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":5477,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"0.5%-2%, 1-2 times per day","Promotes collagen production and wound healing","Research compound. ANGIOGENESIS CONCERN - Avoid with cancer history. Generally well-tolerated topically. WADA BANNED",[18341,18342,18343,18344,18348,18353,18358,18363,18364,18369,18373,18376,18380,18384,18388,18393,18397,18401,18405,18410,18414,18419,18423,18427,18432,18437,18441,18446,18450,18454,18458,18463,18468,18471,18475,18480,18485],{"id":2990,"title":3761,"authors":155,"journal":3762,"year":458,"citationType":158,"doi":3763,"researchPaperId":3764},{"id":939,"title":3767,"authors":155,"journal":3768,"year":458,"citationType":158,"doi":3769,"researchPaperId":3770},{"id":2286,"title":3773,"authors":155,"journal":156,"year":697,"citationType":158,"doi":3774,"researchPaperId":3775},{"id":2546,"title":18345,"authors":18346,"journal":1990,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":18347},"Imidazole-rich copper peptides as catalysts in xenobiotic degradation.","Begum SZ, Nizam NSM, Muhamad A, Saiman MI, Crouse KA, Abdul Rahman MB","10.1371/journal.pone.0238147",{"id":2575,"title":18349,"authors":18350,"journal":18351,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":18352},"Unsubstantiated Claims About Dermatologic Applications of Copper Peptides in a Study of YouTube Videos.","Shah A, Lipner S","Journal of cutaneous medicine and surgery","10.1177/12034754231188560",{"id":2549,"title":18354,"authors":18355,"journal":18356,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":18357},"Stability and Pseudocatecholase Activity of Artificial Bis-Histidyl Copper Peptides.","Bottoni C, Tegoni M, Borghesani V","Inorganic chemistry","10.1021/acs.inorgchem.5c02080",{"id":2578,"title":18359,"authors":18360,"journal":18361,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":18362},"Enhanced hair regrowth with five monthly sessions of minoxidil-dutasteride-copper peptides tattooing for androgenetic alopecia assessed by artificial intelligence and blinded evaluators.","Kuceki G, Coppinger AJ, Ragi SD, Johnson LS, Goren A, Kalil LL, Cirino P, Wambier CG","JAAD international","10.1016/j.jdin.2025.01.012",{"id":2552,"title":3953,"authors":3954,"journal":3859,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":3955},{"id":3279,"title":18365,"authors":18366,"journal":18367,"year":1624,"citationType":167,"doi":18368},"Electrochemical regulation of mitochondrial respiratory chain protein redox states using transmembrane copper peptides for myocardial infarction risk assessment.","Hao P, Liu Y, Wang P, Li M, Li X","Bioelectrochemistry (Amsterdam, Netherlands)","10.1016/j.bioelechem.2025.109071",{"id":3282,"title":18370,"authors":18371,"journal":16696,"year":249,"citationType":167,"doi":18372},"A peptide model of the copper-binding region of lysyl oxidase.","Ryvkin F, Greenaway FT","10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2004.04.010",{"id":3285,"title":18374,"authors":18375,"journal":17303,"year":1196,"citationType":167},"Effect of Gly-Gly-His, Gly-His-Lys and their copper complexes on TNF-alpha-dependent IL-6 secretion in normal human dermal fibroblasts.","Gruchlik A, Jurzak M, Chodurek E, Dzierzewicz Z",{"id":3288,"title":18377,"authors":18378,"journal":1551,"year":774,"citationType":167,"doi":18379},"Isolation and characterization of copper-binding sites of human ceruloplasmin.","Raju KS","10.1007/BF00228772",{"id":3291,"title":18381,"authors":18382,"journal":2159,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":18383},"Thermodynamically stable ionic liquid microemulsions pioneer pathways for topical delivery and peptide application.","Liu T, Liu Y, Zhao X, Zhang L, Wang W, Bai D, Liao Y, Wang Z, Wang M, Zhang J","10.1016/j.bioactmat.2023.10.002",{"id":3293,"title":18385,"authors":18386,"journal":16696,"year":1384,"citationType":167,"doi":18387},"Copper.Lys-Gly-His-Lys mediated cleavage of tRNA(Phe): studies of reaction mechanism and cleavage specificity.","Bradford S, Kawarasaki Y, Cowan JA","10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2009.03.003",{"id":13438,"title":18389,"authors":18390,"journal":18391,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":18392},"Kinetics of Cu(II) complexation by ATCUN/NTS and related peptides: a gold mine of novel ideas for copper biology.","Kotuniak R, Bal W","Dalton transactions (Cambridge, England : 2003)","10.1039/d1dt02878b",{"id":13441,"title":18394,"authors":18395,"journal":13574,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":18396},"Copper chelating peptides derived from tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) skin as tyrosinase inhibitor: Biological evaluation, in silico investigation and in vivo effects.","Song Y, Li J, Tian H, Xiang H, Chen S, Li L, Hu X","10.1016/j.foodres.2022.112307",{"id":13443,"title":18398,"authors":18399,"journal":18356,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":18400},"Azurin-Derived Peptides: Comparison of Nickel- and Copper-Binding Properties.","Das D, Ainavarapu SRK","10.1021/acs.inorgchem.1c01007",{"id":13446,"title":18402,"authors":18403,"journal":16696,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":18404},"Intrinsically photoluminescent hydrogels to measure peptides‑copper binding affinities.","Distefano A, Corsaro P, Tuccitto N, Laneri F, Monasson O, Peroni E, Grasso G","10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2025.112914",{"id":13449,"title":18406,"authors":18407,"journal":18408,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":18409},"N-Terminal-Specific Dual Modification of Peptides through Copper-Catalyzed [3+2] Cycloaddition.","Machida H, Kanemoto K","Angewandte Chemie (International ed. in English)","10.1002/anie.202320012",{"id":13451,"title":18411,"authors":18412,"journal":1754,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":18413},"Characterization of Copper(II) and Zinc(II) Complexes of Peptides Mimicking the CuZnSOD Enzyme.","Székely E, Molnár M, Lihi N, Várnagy K","10.3390/molecules29040795",{"id":18415,"title":18416,"authors":18417,"journal":9864,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":18418},395,"Bifunctional peptides as alternatives to copper-based formulations to control citrus canker.","Dilarri G, de Lencastre Novaes LC, Jakob F, Schwaneberg U, Ferreira H","10.1007/s00253-023-12908-3",{"id":18310,"title":18420,"authors":18421,"journal":4434,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":18422},"Copper-catalyzed asymmetric C(sp(3))-H cyanoalkylation of glycine derivatives and peptides.","Qi R, Chen Q, Liu L, Ma Z, Pan D, Wang H, Li Z, Wang C, Xu Z","10.1038/s41467-023-38871-1",{"id":18312,"title":18424,"authors":18425,"journal":10914,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":18426},"Copper(I)-Catalyzed Late-Stage Introduction of Oxime Ethers into Peptides at the Carboxylic Acid Site.","Liu Y, He Z, Ma W, Bao G, Li Y, Yu C, Li J, E R, Xu Z, Wang R, Sun W","10.1021/acs.orglett.2c03813",{"id":18314,"title":18428,"authors":18429,"journal":18430,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":18431},"Copper complexes of synthetic peptides mimicking neurotrophin-3 enhance neurite outgrowth and CREB phosphorylation.","Naletova I, Grasso GI, Satriano C, Travaglia A, La Mendola D, Arena G, Rizzarelli E","Metallomics : integrated biometal science","10.1039/c9mt00045c",{"id":18316,"title":18433,"authors":18434,"journal":18435,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":18436},"Peptides derived from histidine and methionine-rich regions of copper transporter 1 exhibit anti-angiogenic property by chelating extracellular Cu.","Narayanan IG, Natarajan SK","Chemical biology & drug design","10.1111/cbdd.13145",{"id":18319,"title":18438,"authors":18439,"journal":3938,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":18440},"Electrochemical Detection of Interaction between Copper(II) and Peptides Related to Pathological α-Synuclein Mutants.","Li S, Kerman K","10.1021/acs.analchem.8b03612",{"id":15762,"title":18442,"authors":18443,"journal":18444,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":18445},"A Peptide-Copper Self-Assembled Nanoparticle for Enhanced Cuproptosis by Metabolic Reprogramming in Tumor Cells.","Zhang W, Chen Z, Xiong C, Yuan L, Hu JJ, Dai J, Xia F, Lou X","ACS nano","10.1021/acsnano.4c12123",{"id":15765,"title":18447,"authors":18448,"journal":703,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":18449},"Attachment of Peptides to Oligonucleotides on Solid Support Using Copper(I)-Catalyzed Huisgen 1,3-Dipolar Cycloaddition.","Honcharenko M, Honcharenko D, Strömberg R","10.1007/978-1-4939-9670-4_9",{"id":15768,"title":18451,"authors":18452,"journal":1347,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":18453},"Copper regulates the interactions of antimicrobial piscidin peptides from fish mast cells with formyl peptide receptors and heparin.","Kim SY, Zhang F, Gong W, Chen K, Xia K, Liu F, Gross R, Wang JM, Linhardt RJ, Cotten ML","10.1074/jbc.RA118.001904",{"id":15770,"title":18455,"authors":18456,"journal":755,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":18457},"Tyrosinase inhibitory effects of the peptides from fish scale with the metal copper ions chelating ability.","Ju X, Cheng S, Li H, Xu X, Wang Z, Du M","10.1016/j.foodchem.2022.133146",{"id":15772,"title":18459,"authors":18460,"journal":18461,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":18462},"Biosynthetic Functionalization of Nonribosomal Peptides.","Niquille DL, Folger IB, Basler S, Hilvert D","Journal of the American Chemical Society","10.1021/jacs.1c00925",{"id":6506,"title":18464,"authors":18465,"journal":18466,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":18467},"Fabrication of Nanocatalytic Medicine from Self-Assembling Peptides Containing an ATCUN-Like Copper-Binding Motif for Anticancer Therapy.","Zhang W, Tian X, Li X","Chembiochem : a European journal of chemical biology","10.1002/cbic.202400216",{"id":6510,"title":18469,"authors":18470,"journal":18169,"year":723,"citationType":167},"The impact of the amino-acid sequence on the specificity of copper(II) interactions with peptides having nonco-ordinating side-chains.","Bal W, Dyba M, Kozłowski H",{"id":6514,"title":18472,"authors":18473,"journal":703,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":18474},"Modification of DNA Nanostructures with Functional Peptides Through Copper-Free Click Chemistry.","Altattan B, Möser C, Smith D","10.1007/978-1-0716-4394-5_14",{"id":6516,"title":18476,"authors":18477,"journal":18478,"year":1122,"citationType":167,"doi":18479},"Click to join peptides/proteins together.","Li X","Chemistry, an Asian journal","10.1002/asia.201100329",{"id":14023,"title":18481,"authors":18482,"journal":18483,"year":290,"citationType":167,"doi":18484},"Affinity purification of copper chelating peptides from chickpea protein hydrolysates.","Megías C, Pedroche J, Yust MM, Girón-Calle J, Alaiz M, Millan F, Vioque J","Journal of agricultural and food chemistry","10.1021/jf063401s",{"id":14026,"title":18486,"authors":18487,"journal":2915,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":18488},"Selenocysteine containing analogues of Atx1-based peptides protect cells from copper ion toxicity.","Shoshan MS, Lehman Y, Goch W, Bal W, Tshuva EY, Metanis N","10.1039/c6ob00849f",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":7750,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":18491},"2026-01-05T22:12:14.760772","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/copper-peptides.webp","403.9","C14H24CuN6O4","23978","MQRRDFLKYSVALGVASALPLWSRAVFAAERPTLPIPDLLTTDARNRIQLTIGAGQSTFGGKTATTWGYNGNLLGPAVKLQRGKAVTVDIYNQLTEETTLHWHGLEVPGEVDGGPQGIIPPGGKRSVTLNVDQPAATCWFHPHQHGKTGRQVAMGLAGLVVIEDDEILKLMLPKQWGIDDVPVIVQDKKFSADGQIDYQLDVMTAAVGWFGDTLLTNGAIYPQHAAPRGWLRLRLLNGCNARSLNFATSDNRPLYVIASDGGLLPEPVKVSELPVLMGERFEVLVEVNDNKPFDLVTLPVSQMGMAIAPFDKPHPVMRIQPIAISASGALPDTLSSLPALPSLEGLTVRKLQLSMDPMLDMMGMQMLMEKYGDQAMAGMDHSQMMGHMGHGNMNHMNHGGKFDFHHANKINGQAFDMNKPMFAAAKGQYERWVISGVGDMMLHPFHIHGTQFRILSENGKPPAAHRAGWKDTVKVEGNVSEVLVKFNHDAPKEHAYMAHCHLLEHEDTGMMLGFTV","Minutes to hours (varies by application)",[3635,18499,18500,18501,18502],"copper tripeptide-1","Cu-GHK","glycyl-L-histidyl-L-lysine copper(II) complex","Copper Peptide GHK-Cu",[18504,3014,18505,4011,3665],"Skin aging and anti-aging","Collagen and elastin production",{"human":18507,"animal":18508,"inVitro":18509,"uncertain":18510},"Small human studies report improved collagen production and skin appearance with topical GHK-Cu; a Phase 2 trial of a topical GHK-Cu gel for acute skin wound healing is currently recruiting (NCT07437586). Most mechanistic support comes from in-vitro and gene-expression work rather than large randomized trials.","In-vivo skin and wound models in rodents show that GHK-Cu accelerates wound healing, increases angiogenesis and promotes collagen deposition.","GHK-Cu stimulates collagen and elastin synthesis in cultured fibroblasts, modulates MMP/TIMP expression, and regulates the expression of a large number of genes relevant to tissue remodeling and inflammation (review: Pickart & Margolina, Int J Mol Sci 2018).","Claims of systemic anti-aging, oral, or injectable copper-peptide benefits are not supported by published clinical evidence; most human data concern topical application, and the best-known review literature is authored by the peptide's pioneer (L. Pickart).",[18512,18516],{"finding":18513,"source":18514,"year":491,"link":18515,"evidenceLevel":343},"Review summarizing GHK-Cu's gene-regulatory and regenerative actions: increased collagen and elastin synthesis, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, and tissue-remodeling activity.","Peer-reviewed review (International Journal of Molecular Sciences)","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29986520/",{"finding":18517,"source":18518,"year":157,"link":4025,"evidenceLevel":46},"Phase 2 trial registered and recruiting for topical GHK-Cu gel in acute skin wound healing (sponsor: Hudson Biotech).","Phase 2 clinical trial registry entry (ClinicalTrials.gov)","Human clinical evidence is limited and heterogeneous: many studies are small, short-term, or uncontrolled, and there are no large randomized controlled trials for cosmetic outcomes; systemic uses are unstudied in humans.","GHK is a naturally occurring human tripeptide (glycyl-histidyl-lysine) found in plasma and tissues; it binds copper(II) to form GHK-Cu. Topical application is the best-studied route; mechanistic effects include upregulation of collagen/elastin synthesis and modulation of matrix metalloproteinases.",[18522,18525],{"question":18523,"answer":18524},"Does GHK-Cu really increase collagen in human skin?","Small human studies and in-vitro work suggest increased collagen production with topical use, but large, high-quality randomized trials are still lacking.",{"question":18526,"answer":18527},"Is GHK-Cu approved for cosmetic or medical use?","It is widely used in cosmetic formulations, but it is not an FDA-approved drug; the Phase 2 wound-healing trial (NCT07437586) is still recruiting.",{"id":9542,"name":18529,"slug":18530,"description":18531,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":15,"views":2222,"shortDescription":18532,"researchStatus":18533,"peptideBenefits":18534,"benefits":18543,"peptideSideEffects":18550,"sideEffects":18555,"dosage":18559,"mechanism":18560,"safetyNote":18561,"athleteWarning":18148,"chemicalMakeup":18562,"citations":18563,"research":18622,"statsCache":18623,"imageUrl":18625,"molecularWeight":18626,"molecularFormula":18627,"pubchemId":18628,"sequence":18629,"halfLife":18037,"administrationRoute":18037,"casNumber":18630,"smiles":18631,"totalMentions":8,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"aliases":18632,"researchAreas":18637,"evidence":18641,"keyStudies":18646,"limitations":18657,"pharmacology":18658,"faqs":18659,"lastReviewed":359},"Matrixyl (Palmitoyl Pentapeptide)","matrixyl","Matrixyl (Palmitoyl Pentapeptide-4, KTTKS) is a synthetic lipopeptide widely used in cosmetic skincare products for its collagen-stimulating properties. The pentapeptide sequence KTTKS is a fragment of type I collagen's procollagen propeptide, which signals fibroblasts to produce new collagen as part of wound healing. The palmitoyl (palmitic acid) modification enhances skin penetration and cellular uptake. Research demonstrates Matrixyl stimulates collagen I, collagen IV, fibronectin, and glycosaminoglycan synthesis in dermal fibroblasts. Clinical studies show improvements in skin texture, wrinkle depth, skin firmness, and overall skin appearance with regular topical application. The peptide is considered safe for cosmetic use with no significant adverse effects reported. Matrixyl 3000, a combination of Palmitoyl Tripeptide-1 and Palmitoyl Tetrapeptide-7, provides additional anti-inflammatory benefits. Unlike more invasive anti-aging treatments, signal peptides like Matrixyl work by mimicking natural skin repair processes. The peptide has become a cornerstone ingredient in anti-aging skincare formulations.","Palmitoyl pentapeptide for collagen production and skin anti-aging","Cosmetic ingredient - Palmitoyl pentapeptide",[18535,18536,18537,18539,18540,18541],{"id":410,"benefit":3658,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":407,"benefit":18095,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":413,"benefit":18538,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Skin firmness",{"id":3031,"benefit":3007,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3036,"benefit":34,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3034,"benefit":18542,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Improved skin texture",[18544,18545,18546,18547,18548,18549],{"id":410,"benefit":3658,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":407,"benefit":18095,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":413,"benefit":18538,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3031,"benefit":3007,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3036,"benefit":34,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3034,"benefit":18542,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},[18551,18552,18554],{"id":9439,"sideEffect":2340,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":9462,"sideEffect":18553,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Rare mild skin irritation",{"id":9468,"sideEffect":17447,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},[18556,18557,18558],{"id":9439,"sideEffect":2340,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":9462,"sideEffect":18553,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":9468,"sideEffect":17447,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"3-8% topical","Stimulates collagen synthesis for anti-wrinkle effects","Generally considered safe for topical cosmetic use. Well-established safety profile.","Palmitoyl-Lys-Thr-Thr-Lys-Ser (lipopeptide)",[18564,18569,18574,18579,18584,18590,18595,18601,18607,18612,18617],{"id":18565,"title":18566,"authors":18567,"journal":4865,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":18568},1122,"Matrixyl Patch vs Matrixyl Cream: A Comparative In Vivo Investigation of Matrixyl (MTI) Effect on Wound Healing.","Kachooeian M, Mousivand Z, Sharifikolouei E, Shirangi M, Firoozpour L, Raoufi M, Sharifzadeh M","10.1021/acsomega.2c02592",{"id":18570,"title":18571,"authors":18572,"journal":792,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":18573},1123,"Boosting Cosmeceutical Peptides: Coupling Imidazolium-Based Ionic Liquids to Pentapeptide-4 Originates New Leads with Antimicrobial and Collagenesis-Inducing Activities.","Gomes A, Bessa LJ, Fernandes I, Aguiar L, Ferraz R, Monteiro C, Martins MCL, Mateus N, Gameiro P, Teixeira C, Gomes P","10.1128/spectrum.02291-21",{"id":18575,"title":18576,"authors":18577,"journal":10716,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":18578},1124,"The Reparative Effect of Dendrobium officinale Protocorms against Photodamage Caused by UV-Irradiation in Hairless Mice.","Mai Y, Niu Z, He W, Lai X, Huang S, Zheng X","10.1248/bpb.b18-00901",{"id":18580,"title":18581,"authors":18582,"journal":816,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":18583},1125,"Self-Assembly and Wound Healing Activity of Biomimetic Cycloalkane-Based Lipopeptides.","Adak A, Castelletto V, Hamley IW, Seitsonen J, Jana A, Ghosh S, Mukherjee N, Ghosh S","10.1021/acsami.4c14162",{"id":18585,"title":18586,"authors":18587,"journal":18588,"year":260,"citationType":167,"doi":18589},1126,"Collagen stimulating effect of peptide amphiphile C16-KTTKS on human fibroblasts.","Jones RR, Castelletto V, Connon CJ, Hamley IW","Molecular pharmaceutics","10.1021/mp300549d",{"id":18591,"title":18592,"authors":18593,"journal":1754,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":18594},1127,"The Effects of a Novel Series of KTTKS Analogues on Cytotoxicity and Proteolytic Activity.","Tałałaj U, Uścinowicz P, Bruzgo I, Surażyński A, Zaręba I, Markowska A","10.3390/molecules24203698",{"id":18596,"title":18597,"authors":18598,"journal":18599,"year":249,"citationType":167,"doi":18600},1128,"Thêta-Cream versus Bepanthol lotion in breast cancer patients under radiotherapy. A new prophylactic agent in skin care?","Röper B, Kaisig D, Auer F, Mergen E, Molls M","Strahlentherapie und Onkologie : Organ der Deutschen Rontgengesellschaft ... [et al]","10.1007/s00066-004-1174-9",{"id":18602,"title":18603,"authors":18604,"journal":18605,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":18606},1129,"N-Terminal Acetylation and C-Terminal Amidation of Spirulina platensis-Derived Hexapeptide: Anti-Photoaging Activity and Proteomic Analysis.","Zeng Q, Jiang J, Wang J, Zhou Q, Zhang X","Marine drugs","10.3390/md17090520",{"id":18608,"title":18609,"authors":18610,"journal":816,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":18611},1130,"Self-Assembly, Tunable Hydrogel Properties, and Selective Anti-Cancer Activity of a Carnosine-Derived Lipidated Peptide.","Castelletto V, Edwards-Gayle CJC, Greco F, Hamley IW, Seitsonen J, Ruokolainen J","10.1021/acsami.9b09065",{"id":18613,"title":18614,"authors":18615,"journal":1754,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":18616},1131,"Synergistic Effects of Injectable Platelet-Rich Fibrin and Bioactive Peptides on Dermal Fibroblast Viability and Extracellular Matrix Gene Expression: An In Vitro Study.","Paccola AGL, Santos TMCD, Minelo MC, Garbieri TF, Sanches MLR, Dionísio TJ, Oliveira RC, Santos CF, Buzalaf MAR","10.3390/molecules30163415",{"id":18618,"title":18619,"authors":18620,"journal":5540,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":18621},1132,"Turning a Collagenesis-Inducing Peptide Into a Potent Antibacterial and Antibiofilm Agent Against Multidrug-Resistant Gram-Negative Bacteria.","Gomes A, Bessa LJ, Fernandes I, Ferraz R, Mateus N, Gameiro P, Teixeira C, Gomes P","10.3389/fmicb.2019.01915",[],{"totalProtocols":5369,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":8,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":18624},"2026-01-05T22:12:16.421599","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/matrixyl.webp","802.00","C39H74N8O10","9897237","Pal-KTTKS","214047-00-4","CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC(=O)N[C@@H](CCCCN)C(=O)N[C@@H]([C@@H](C)O)C(=O)N[C@@H]([C@@H](C)O)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCCN)C(=O)N[C@@H](CO)C(=O)O",[18633,18634,18635,18636],"Matrixyl","palmitoyl pentapeptide-4","pal-KTTKS","Matrixyl 3000 (pal-KTTKS + pal-GQPR blend)",[18638,3693,18639,18640],"Cosmetic anti-aging","Photoaged skin","Topical peptide delivery",{"human":18642,"animal":18643,"inVitro":18644,"uncertain":18645},"A published vehicle-controlled clinical study of a topical formulation containing palmitoyl pentapeptide (pal-KTTKS) reported improvements in facial fine lines/wrinkles and roughness in photoaged skin, supporting cosmetic anti-wrinkle claims.","An in vivo investigation reported that Matrixyl-based topical formulations accelerated wound healing in an animal model.","Fibroblast culture studies show pal-KTTKS stimulates production of collagen type I and III and fibronectin, mimicking the signal of the C-terminal propeptide of procollagen.","Most supporting data come from manufacturer-affiliated or small studies measuring cosmetic endpoints; independent large-scale comparative trials are limited, and effects are appearance-level rather than comparable to injectable treatments.",[18647,18651,18654],{"finding":18648,"source":18649,"year":243,"link":18650,"evidenceLevel":46},"A controlled clinical study found that a topical palmitoyl pentapeptide formulation improved the appearance of photoaged facial skin (reduced fine lines and roughness) after daily use versus vehicle.","Controlled clinical study (International Journal of Cosmetic Science)","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18492182/",{"finding":18643,"source":18652,"year":437,"link":18653,"evidenceLevel":50},"In vivo animal study (ACS Omega)","https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.2c02592",{"finding":18655,"source":18656,"year":23,"link":23,"evidenceLevel":343},"Cell-culture studies demonstrate that pal-KTTKS stimulates synthesis of collagen type I/III and fibronectin in fibroblasts.","In vitro fibroblast studies","Clinical evidence is mostly from small or manufacturer-affiliated cosmetic studies measuring wrinkle metrics; there are no large independent trials. Matrixyl is a cosmetic ingredient, not a drug, and claims are limited to appearance improvement.","Matrixyl is a lipophilic palmitoylated pentapeptide (pal-KTTKS) designed for topical application to improve dermal penetration. It is a cosmetic active ingredient, not a systemic drug, so no systemic pharmacokinetics apply to typical topical use.",[18660,18663,18666],{"question":18661,"answer":18662},"Is Matrixyl a drug?","No - it is a cosmetic peptide ingredient used in topical skincare products, not an FDA-approved drug.",{"question":18664,"answer":18665},"How does Matrixyl work?","It mimics a procollagen fragment signal (KTTKS) that stimulates fibroblasts to produce collagen and fibronectin, which underlies its anti-wrinkle claims.",{"question":18667,"answer":18668},"Is there clinical evidence it reduces wrinkles?","A published vehicle-controlled study reported modest improvement in photoaged facial skin, though most supporting data come from manufacturer-affiliated or small studies.",{"id":5,"name":18670,"slug":18671,"description":18672,"fdaApproved":28,"wadaBanned":15,"views":5134,"researchStatus":18673,"peptideBenefits":18674,"benefits":18684,"peptideSideEffects":18690,"sideEffects":18698,"dosage":18703,"mechanism":18704,"safetyNote":18705,"citations":18706,"research":18839,"statsCache":18840,"imageUrl":18842,"molecularWeight":18843,"molecularFormula":18844,"pubchemId":18845,"sequence":18846,"halfLife":18847,"administrationRoute":540,"casNumber":18848,"smiles":18849,"totalMentions":1636,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"protocols":18850,"aliases":18859,"researchAreas":18865,"evidence":18870,"keyStudies":18875,"limitations":18884,"pharmacology":18885,"faqs":18886,"lastReviewed":359},"Melanotan","melanotan","Melanotan II is an analog that is a derivative of a precursor of melanocyte stimulating hormone (a-MSH). It seeks out melanocortin receptors, primarily MC1R in the skin and MC4R in the brain. On the skin side, it ramps up tyrosinase within melanocytes, cranks out eumelanin and revs up the handoff of that pigment to nearby keratinocytes. Translation: You tan with less sun and the color lasts longer. Melanocortin tone can also affect libido and appetite, so users may find themselves feeling extra lusty and a little less hungry. The molecule is 'cyclic' and very receptor efficient, so small amounts can give clear effects.","Research compound - Melanocortin receptor agonist",[18675,18677,18679,18681,18682],{"id":3415,"benefit":18676,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Enhanced tanning with less sun exposure",{"id":130,"benefit":18678,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Longer-lasting tan",{"id":124,"benefit":18680,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Natural pigmentation boost",{"id":133,"benefit":6869,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":127,"benefit":18683,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Potential libido enhancement",[18685,18686,18687,18688,18689],{"id":3415,"benefit":18676,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":130,"benefit":18678,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":124,"benefit":18680,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":133,"benefit":6869,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":127,"benefit":18683,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},[18691,18693,18694,18695],{"id":3270,"sideEffect":18692,"description":23,"severity":1669,"frequency":5476,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":15,"onset":682,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Diffuse hyperpigmentation",{"id":3273,"sideEffect":1272,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":5476,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":5477,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":3276,"sideEffect":5483,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":5476,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":5477,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":9694,"sideEffect":18696,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":15,"onset":18697,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Melanocytic changes","months",[18699,18700,18701,18702],{"id":3270,"sideEffect":18692,"description":23,"severity":1669,"frequency":5476,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":15,"onset":682,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":3273,"sideEffect":1272,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":5476,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":5477,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":3276,"sideEffect":5483,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":5476,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":5477,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":9694,"sideEffect":18696,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":15,"onset":18697,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"0.5-1 mg Loading then maintenance","Activates MC1R (tanning) and MC4R (sexual arousal)","Research compound only. Not approved as a drug in the United States. Regular skin checks recommended due to mole darkening effects. Not a substitute for sun protection.",[18707,18713,18718,18724,18730,18735,18741,18746,18752,18757,18762,18768,18773,18779,18783,18788,18794,18800,18805,18811,18813,18818,18823,18829,18834],{"id":18708,"title":18709,"authors":18710,"journal":18711,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":18712},1160,"Melanotan Tanning Injection: A Rare Cause of Priapism.","Mallory CW, Lopategui DM, Cordon BH","Sexual medicine","10.1016/j.esxm.2020.100298",{"id":18714,"title":18715,"authors":18716,"journal":12181,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":18717},1157,"Melanotan-induced priapism: a hard-earned tan.","Dreyer BA, Amer T, Fraser M","10.1136/bcr-2018-227644",{"id":18719,"title":18720,"authors":18721,"journal":18722,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":18723},1158,"Melanotan II: a possible cause of renal infarction: review of the literature and case report.","Peters B, Hadimeri H, Wahlberg R, Afghahi H","CEN case reports","10.1007/s13730-020-00447-z",{"id":18725,"title":18726,"authors":18727,"journal":18728,"year":1122,"citationType":167,"doi":18729},1159,"Melanotan-associated melanoma.","Paurobally D, Jason F, Dezfoulian B, Nikkels AF","The British journal of dermatology","10.1111/j.1365-2133.2011.10273.x",{"id":18731,"title":18732,"authors":18733,"journal":1962,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":18734},1161,"Melanotan-II reverses memory impairment induced by a short-term HF diet.","Wekwejt P, Wojda U, Kiryk A","10.1016/j.biopha.2023.115129",{"id":18736,"title":18737,"authors":18738,"journal":18739,"year":1196,"citationType":167,"doi":18740},1162,"[Melanotan].","Mahiques-Santos L","Actas dermo-sifiliograficas","10.1016/j.ad.2011.08.002",{"id":18742,"title":18743,"authors":18744,"journal":11947,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":18745},1163,"CLIPSing Melanotan-II to Discover Multiple Functionally Selective hMCR Agonists.","Tomassi S, Dimmito MP, Cai M, D'Aniello A, Del Bene A, Messere A, Liu Z, Zhu T, Hruby VJ, Stefanucci A, Cosconati S, Mollica A, Di Maro S","10.1021/acs.jmedchem.1c01848",{"id":18747,"title":18748,"authors":18749,"journal":18750,"year":260,"citationType":167,"doi":18751},1164,"Melanotan-associated transverse melanonychia.","Paurobally D, El Hayderi L, Richert B, Andre J, Nikkels AF","Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology : JEADV","10.1111/j.1468-3083.2011.04399.x",{"id":18753,"title":18754,"authors":18755,"journal":18756,"year":491,"citationType":167},1165,"A glimpse into the underground market of melanotan.","Callaghan Iii DJ","Dermatology online journal",{"id":18758,"title":18759,"authors":18760,"journal":12265,"year":2522,"citationType":167,"doi":18761},1166,"Discovery and development of novel melanogenic drugs. Melanotan-I and -II.","Hadley ME, Hruby VJ, Blanchard J, Dorr RT, Levine N, Dawson BV, al-Obeidi F, Sawyer TK","10.1007/0-306-47384-4_25",{"id":18763,"title":18764,"authors":18765,"journal":18766,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":18767},1167,"Melanotan II User Experience: A Qualitative Study of Online Discussion Forums.","Gilhooley E, Daly S, McKenna D","Dermatology (Basel, Switzerland)","10.1159/000514492",{"id":18769,"title":18770,"authors":18771,"journal":1990,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":18772},1168,"Melanotan-II reverses autistic features in a maternal immune activation mouse model of autism.","Minakova E, Lang J, Medel-Matus JS, Gould GG, Reynolds A, Shin D, Mazarati A, Sankar R","10.1371/journal.pone.0210389",{"id":18774,"title":18775,"authors":18776,"journal":18777,"year":1384,"citationType":167,"doi":18778},1169,"Use of melanotan I and II in the general population.","Evans-Brown M, Dawson RT, Chandler M, McVeigh J","BMJ (Clinical research ed.)","10.1136/bmj.b566",{"id":18780,"title":18781,"authors":18782,"journal":6526,"year":157,"citationType":167},1170,"Sunbeds, dihydroxyacetone (DHA) fake tan, and MelanoTan injections: A history of ‘safe’ tanning technologies.","Elder R, Schlich T, Creed F",{"id":18784,"title":18785,"authors":18786,"journal":12175,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":18787},1171,"Melanotan II, a melanocortin agonist, partially rescues the impaired thermogenic capacity of pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide deficient mice.","McMillan TR, Forster MAM, Short LI, Rudecki AP, Cline DL, Gray SL","10.1113/EP088838",{"id":18789,"title":18790,"authors":18791,"journal":18792,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":18793},1172,"Melanotan II nasal spray: a possible risk factor for oral mucosal malignant melanoma?","Yassin Alsabbagh A, Bhujel N, Singh RP","International journal of oral and maxillofacial surgery","10.1016/j.ijom.2025.03.014",{"id":18795,"title":18796,"authors":18797,"journal":18798,"year":1196,"citationType":167,"doi":18799},1173,"Melanotan II injection resulting in systemic toxicity and rhabdomyolysis.","Nelson ME, Bryant SM, Aks SE","Clinical toxicology (Philadelphia, Pa.)","10.3109/15563650.2012.740637",{"id":18801,"title":18802,"authors":18803,"journal":3546,"year":3074,"citationType":167,"doi":18804},1174,"Melanotan-II: Investigation of the inducer and facilitator effects on penile erection in anaesthetized rat.","Giuliano F, Clément P, Droupy S, Alexandre L, Bernabé J","10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.11.008",{"id":18806,"title":18807,"authors":18808,"journal":18809,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":18810},1175,"[Undesirable pigmentation].","Bayerl C","Der Hautarzt; Zeitschrift fur Dermatologie, Venerologie, und verwandte Gebiete","10.1007/s00105-015-3671-4",{"id":18812,"title":17833,"authors":17834,"journal":1145,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":17835},1176,{"id":18814,"title":18815,"authors":18816,"journal":17807,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":18817},1177,"Melanocortin receptor agonist melanotan-II microinjected in the nucleus accumbens decreases appetitive and consumptive responding for food.","Eliason NL, Martin L, Low MJ, Sharpe AL","10.1016/j.npep.2022.102289",{"id":18819,"title":18820,"authors":18821,"journal":18798,"year":260,"citationType":167,"doi":18822},1178,"Melanotan II overdose associated with priapism.","Devlin J, Pomerleau A, Foote J","10.3109/15563650.2013.784775",{"id":18824,"title":18825,"authors":18826,"journal":18827,"year":1196,"citationType":167,"doi":18828},1179,"Melanotan-associated melanoma in situ.","Ong S, Bowling J","The Australasian journal of dermatology","10.1111/j.1440-0960.2012.00915.x",{"id":18830,"title":18831,"authors":18832,"journal":7190,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":18833},1180,"Melanotan II causes hypothermia in mice by activation of mast cells and stimulation of histamine 1 receptors.","Jain S, Panyutin A, Liu N, Xiao C, Piñol RA, Pundir P, Girardet C, Butler AA, Dong X, Gavrilova O, Reitman ML","10.1152/ajpendo.00024.2018",{"id":18835,"title":18836,"authors":18837,"journal":3865,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":18838},1181,"5-Hydroxypyrroloindoline Affords Tryptathionine and 2,2'-bis-Indole Peptide Staples: Application to Melanotan-II.","Todorovic M, Blanc A, Wang Z, Lozada J, Froelich J, Zeisler J, Zhang C, Merkens H, Benard F, Perrin DM","10.1002/chem.202304270",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":1636,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":18841},"2026-01-05T22:12:20.067669","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/melanotan.webp","1024.18","C50H69N15O9","92432","MACPSLACCLLGLLALTSACYIQNCPLGGKRAALDLDMRKCLPCGPGGKGRCFGPSICCADELGCFVGTAEALRCQEENYLPSPCQSGQKPCGSGGRCATAGICCSPDGCRTDPACDPESAFSER","~1 hour","75921-69-6","CCCC[C@@H](C(=O)N[C@@H](CCC(=O)O)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC1=CN=CN1)C(=O)N[C@H](CC2=CC=CC=C2)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCNC(=N)N)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC3=CNC4=CC=CC=C43)C(=O)NCC(=O)N[C@@H](CCCCN)C(=O)N5CCC[C@H]5C(=O)N[C@@H](C(C)C)C(=O)N)NC(=O)[C@H](CO)NC(=O)[C@H](CC6=CC=C(C=C6)O)NC(=O)[C@H](CO)NC(=O)C",[18851,18853,18855,18857],{"name":18852,"dose":8335,"frequency":5807,"route":5382},"Initial Tanning (Light Skin)",{"name":18854,"dose":9208,"frequency":3989,"route":5382},"Maintenance Tanning",{"name":18856,"dose":9208,"frequency":5807,"route":5382},"Enhanced Pigmentation",{"name":18858,"dose":8335,"frequency":3989,"route":5382},"Photoprotection Only",[18860,18861,18862,18863,18864],"Melanotan I (MT-1)","Melanotan II (MT-2)","Bremelanotide (PT-141, related)","Afamelanotide (Scenesse, related)","alpha-MSH analog",[18866,18867,18868,18869],"Skin pigmentation and tanning","Sexual desire and function (MC4R pathway)","Erythropoietic protoporphyria (afamelanotide)","Photoprotection",{"human":18871,"animal":18872,"inVitro":18873,"uncertain":18874},"A pilot Phase 1 study of Melanotan II in healthy volunteers produced tanning in most subjects, with side effects including facial flushing, nausea, and penile erections. The related peptide bremelanotide (PT-141) was FDA-approved in 2019 (Vyleesi) for acquired hypoactive sexual desire disorder in premenopausal women based on two randomized Phase 3 RECONNECT trials, and the melanocortin agonist afamelanotide (Scenesse) is FDA-approved for erythropoietic protoporphyria. Melanotan II itself has no approved use.","Animal studies established that melanocortin MC1R agonism drives eumelanin production via the cAMP/MITF pathway, and phototoxicity models supported afamelanotide development.","Melanotan II is a non-selective agonist at MC1R, MC3R, MC4R and MC5R; MC1R activation in melanocytes triggers melanogenesis.","Long-term skin safety of repeated melanotan use (nevus changes, melanoma risk) is not established by controlled studies, though concerning case reports exist; weight-loss and general anti-aging claims are unproven.",[18876,18880],{"finding":18877,"source":18878,"year":750,"link":18879,"evidenceLevel":46},"Pilot Phase 1 study: Melanotan II induced tanning in most volunteers; common side effects were facial flushing, nausea, increased appetite, and spontaneous penile erections.","Pilot Phase 1 clinical study (Life Sciences)","https://doi.org/10.1016/0024-3205(96)00160-9",{"finding":18881,"source":18882,"year":697,"link":18883,"evidenceLevel":46},"Two randomized Phase 3 trials (RECONNECT) showed bremelanotide significantly improved sexual desire and distress in premenopausal women with HSDD, supporting FDA approval.","Two randomized Phase 3 trials (Obstetrics & Gynecology)","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31599840/","Melanotan II has no approved medical use; direct clinical evidence is limited to a small pilot study plus pharmacovigilance reports, and most real-world use is unregulated; long-term effects on moles, skin pigmentation and cardiovascular safety are not established.","Melanotan II is a cyclic alpha-MSH analog that activates melanocortin receptors (MC1R-MC5R), stimulating eumelanin synthesis in melanocytes. The related compound bremelanotide (PT-141) targets MC4R for sexual-desire effects and is given by subcutaneous injection (Vyleesi, 1.75 mg as needed). There is no approved dosing for melanotan II.",[18887,18890],{"question":18888,"answer":18889},"Is Melanotan II FDA-approved?","No. Melanotan II is not approved; only the related peptides bremelanotide (Vyleesi, for HSDD) and afamelanotide (Scenesse, for erythropoietic protoporphyria) are FDA-approved.",{"question":18891,"answer":18892},"What are the known side effects of Melanotan II?","In the pilot clinical study, flushing, nausea, increased appetite, and spontaneous erections were reported; unregulated use has also been linked to skin-pigmentation changes and concerning nevus/skin-lesion reports.",{"id":6337,"name":18894,"slug":18895,"description":18896,"fdaApproved":28,"wadaBanned":15,"views":6502,"shortDescription":18897,"peptideBenefits":18898,"benefits":18916,"peptideSideEffects":18924,"sideEffects":18965,"dosage":18703,"mechanism":18981,"safetyNote":18982,"citations":18983,"research":18989,"statsCache":18990,"imageUrl":18992,"molecularWeight":18993,"molecularFormula":18844,"pubchemId":18845,"sequence":18846,"halfLife":18847,"administrationRoute":540,"casNumber":18994,"smiles":18995,"totalMentions":532,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"protocols":18996,"aliases":19007,"researchAreas":19012,"evidence":19017,"keyStudies":19022,"limitations":19030,"pharmacology":19031,"faqs":19032,"lastReviewed":359},"Melanotan-II","melanotan-ii","Melanotan II is a synthetic cyclic lactam analog of alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone (α-MSH) that binds to melanocortin receptors, primarily MC1R in skin and MC4R in the brain. The peptide induces melanogenesis, stimulating melanocytes to produce eumelanin and resulting in skin pigmentation (tanning) without UV exposure. Beyond tanning effects, Melanotan II acts on hypothalamic MC4R to suppress appetite and may promote fat loss. Research indicates effects on sexual arousal and erectile function through central nervous system pathways, leading to development of the related compound PT-141 (Bremelanotide). Common side effects include nausea, facial flushing, and fatigue. The peptide requires subcutaneous injection and users typically undergo a loading phase followed by maintenance dosing. Melanotan II is not FDA-approved and carries risks including potential effects on existing moles and unknown long-term safety. It should be distinguished from Melanotan I (Afamelanotide), which is more selective for MC1R and has been approved in some countries for specific photosensitivity disorders.","Melanocortin receptor agonist for tanning and appetite suppression",[18899,18902,18904,18906,18909,18912,18915],{"id":441,"benefit":18900,"benefitCategory":18901,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},"Penile erection in 17/20 men without sexual stimulation","sexual function",{"id":447,"benefit":18903,"benefitCategory":18901,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},"Increased sexual desire",{"id":454,"benefit":18905,"benefitCategory":10472,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},"Weight loss and fat reduction",{"id":461,"benefit":18907,"benefitCategory":18908,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},"Tanning/skin pigmentation","dermatological",{"id":15841,"benefit":18910,"benefitCategory":18911,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Tanning without UV exposure","Cosmetic",{"id":15846,"benefit":18913,"benefitCategory":18914,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Erectile function enhancement","Sexual Health",{"id":15851,"benefit":6869,"benefitCategory":6508,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},[18917,18918,18919,18920,18921,18922,18923],{"id":441,"benefit":18900,"benefitCategory":18901,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":447,"benefit":18903,"benefitCategory":18901,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":454,"benefit":18905,"benefitCategory":10472,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":50,"verified":28},{"id":461,"benefit":18907,"benefitCategory":18908,"source":24,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":28},{"id":15841,"benefit":18910,"benefitCategory":18911,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":15846,"benefit":18913,"benefitCategory":18914,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":15851,"benefit":6869,"benefitCategory":6508,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},[18925,18927,18928,18930,18933,18935,18936,18937,18939,18941,18945,18948,18952,18956,18960],{"id":6303,"sideEffect":18926,"description":23,"severity":10494,"frequency":2598,"source":24,"sourceType":24,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":23,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Nausea (12.9% severe at 0.025 mg/kg)",{"id":6305,"sideEffect":5483,"description":23,"severity":2597,"frequency":2598,"source":24,"sourceType":24,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":23,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":10583,"sideEffect":18929,"description":23,"severity":2597,"frequency":2598,"source":24,"sourceType":24,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":23,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Yawning",{"id":10588,"sideEffect":18931,"description":23,"severity":18932,"frequency":4629,"source":24,"sourceType":24,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":23,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Priapism (case reports)","severe",{"id":9705,"sideEffect":1272,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":5476,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":18934,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":5477,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"https://reddit.com/r/Peptides/comments/1p9nzwh/glow70_irritation_at_every_injection_site_what/",{"id":9710,"sideEffect":5483,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":5476,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":18934,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":5477,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":9715,"sideEffect":18696,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":18934,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":15,"onset":18697,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":9720,"sideEffect":18938,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":5476,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":18934,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":15,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"NOT APPROVED - health warnings",{"id":9699,"sideEffect":18940,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":18934,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":15,"onset":675,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Priapism (SERIOUS)",{"id":10383,"sideEffect":1878,"description":23,"severity":1879,"frequency":10865,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":18942,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":18943,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":18944,"management":15552,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},"pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23121206/","Melanotan-2","15 min - 2 hours",{"id":441,"sideEffect":398,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":5476,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":18946,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":18943,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":18947,"management":1894,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},"webmd.com/vitamins","Shortly after",{"id":447,"sideEffect":7466,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":18949,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":18942,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":18943,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":18950,"management":18951,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},"Rare (case reports)","Within 2 hours","ICU; IV fluids; benzodiazepines",{"id":454,"sideEffect":7472,"description":23,"severity":1669,"frequency":5476,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":18953,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":18943,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":18954,"management":18955,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},"hpra.ie","1-2 weeks","Dermatologic exam; discontinue",{"id":461,"sideEffect":7466,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":18957,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":18958,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":18943,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":2228,"management":18959,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Rare (4 cases documented)","pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22724573/","Surgical excision; oncologic follow-up",{"id":468,"sideEffect":7472,"description":23,"severity":1669,"frequency":18961,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":18962,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":18943,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":18963,"management":18964,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},"Common in males","rxlist.com","1-5 hours","Urologic evaluation if >4 hours",[18966,18967,18968,18969,18970,18971,18972,18973,18974,18975,18976,18977,18978,18979,18980],{"id":6303,"sideEffect":18926,"description":23,"severity":10494,"frequency":2598,"source":24,"sourceType":24,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":23,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":6305,"sideEffect":5483,"description":23,"severity":2597,"frequency":2598,"source":24,"sourceType":24,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":23,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":10583,"sideEffect":18929,"description":23,"severity":2597,"frequency":2598,"source":24,"sourceType":24,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":23,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":10588,"sideEffect":18931,"description":23,"severity":18932,"frequency":4629,"source":24,"sourceType":24,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":23,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":9705,"sideEffect":1272,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":5476,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":18934,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":5477,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":9710,"sideEffect":5483,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":5476,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":18934,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":5477,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":9715,"sideEffect":18696,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":18934,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":15,"onset":18697,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":9720,"sideEffect":18938,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":5476,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":18934,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":15,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":9699,"sideEffect":18940,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":18934,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":15,"onset":675,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":10383,"sideEffect":1878,"description":23,"severity":1879,"frequency":10865,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":18942,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":18943,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":18944,"management":15552,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},{"id":441,"sideEffect":398,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":5476,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":18946,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":18943,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":18947,"management":1894,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},{"id":447,"sideEffect":7466,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":18949,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":18942,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":18943,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":18950,"management":18951,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},{"id":454,"sideEffect":7472,"description":23,"severity":1669,"frequency":5476,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":18953,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":18943,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":18954,"management":18955,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},{"id":461,"sideEffect":7466,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":18957,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":18958,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":18943,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":2228,"management":18959,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":468,"sideEffect":7472,"description":23,"severity":1669,"frequency":18961,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":18962,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":18943,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":18963,"management":18964,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},"Melanocortin receptor agonist for tanning","ILLEGAL - NOT APPROVED in any jurisdiction. Multiple national health warnings issued. NO SAFE PROTOCOL. Associated with priapism and melanocytic changes.",[18984],{"id":9549,"title":18985,"authors":155,"journal":18986,"year":458,"citationType":1024,"doi":18987,"researchPaperId":18988},"Afamelanotide (Scenesse) for Erythropoietic Protoporphyria: Long-term Safety","Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology","10.1016/j.jaad.2024.05.032","pubmed_39156782",[],{"totalProtocols":2486,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":532,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":18991},"2026-01-05T22:12:12.782679","/images/peptides/melanotan-ii.svg","1024.0","121062-08-6","CCCC[C@@H](C(=O)N[C@H]1CC(=O)NCCCC[C@H](NC(=O)[C@@H](NC(=O)[C@@H](NC(=O)[C@H](NC(=O)[C@@H](NC1=O)CC2=CN=CN2)CC3=CC=CC=C3)CCCN=C(N)N)CC4=CNC5=CC=CC=C54)C(=O)N)NC(=O)C",[18997,18999,19001,19003,19006],{"name":18998,"dose":8335,"frequency":310,"route":311},"Initial Loading",{"name":19000,"dose":8343,"frequency":881,"route":311},"Tanning Maintenance",{"name":19002,"dose":8343,"frequency":17114,"route":311},"Sexual Enhancement",{"name":19004,"dose":19005,"frequency":16131,"route":311},"Minimal Side Effects","0.1-0.25mg",{"name":18869,"dose":9208,"frequency":1589,"route":311},[19008,19009,19010,19011],"MT-II","Melanotan 2","Ac-Nle-cyclo[Asp-His-D-Phe-Arg-Trp-Lys]-NH2","bremelanotide (PT-141) precursor",[19013,19014,19015,19016],"Skin pigmentation / tanning research","Erectile dysfunction (investigational)","Sexual arousal and desire","Melanocortin receptor pharmacology",{"human":19018,"animal":19019,"inVitro":19020,"uncertain":19021},"Clinical studies of MT-II demonstrated dose-dependent skin tanning in healthy volunteers and initiation of erections in men with psychogenic erectile dysfunction (double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover study). Its metabolite bremelanotide (PT-141) was FDA-approved in 2019 (Vyleesi) for hypoactive sexual desire disorder in premenopausal women; MT-II itself is not FDA-approved.","Rodent studies show MT-II activates melanocortin receptors (MC1R, MC3R, MC4R, MC5R), driving pigmentation, feeding suppression, and erectile responses.","Binding assays characterize MT-II as a potent non-selective agonist of MC1R, MC3R, MC4R, and MC5R.","Consumer use of unapproved MT-II for 'sunless tanning' is widespread but unregulated; long-term melanoma risk and other safety questions remain unverified, and appetite/sexual claims are based on limited clinical work.",[19023,19026],{"finding":19024,"source":19025,"year":2522,"link":23,"evidenceLevel":46},"In a double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover study, the synthetic melanotropic peptide (MT-II) initiated erections in men with psychogenic erectile dysfunction.","Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover study (Journal of Urology)",{"finding":19027,"source":19028,"year":697,"link":19029,"evidenceLevel":46},"Bremelanotide (PT-141), derived from MT-II, was approved by the FDA for hypoactive sexual desire disorder in premenopausal women.","FDA approval (Vyleesi)","https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-approves-new-treatment-hypoactive-sexual-desire-disorder-premenopausal-women","MT-II is unapproved and carries notable safety concerns: nausea, flushing, darkened moles, spontaneous erections, and unverified long-term melanoma risk. Most use is off-label or underground without medical oversight, and the compound is not standardized or regulated.","Short-acting cyclic peptide administered by subcutaneous injection. Mechanism: non-selective agonism of melanocortin receptors - MC1R drives melanogenesis (tanning), MC4R contributes to appetite and erectile/sexual pathways; PT-141 (bremelanotide) is its desacetylated metabolite.",[19033,19035,19038],{"question":18888,"answer":19034},"No. MT-II itself is not approved. Only its metabolite bremelanotide (PT-141, Vyleesi) is FDA-approved, and only for hypoactive sexual desire disorder in premenopausal women.",{"question":19036,"answer":19037},"Why is Melanotan II used for tanning?","It is a potent agonist of MC1R on melanocytes, which stimulates melanogenesis (tanning) without UV exposure - an off-label use for which it is unapproved and unregulated.",{"question":19039,"answer":19040},"Is Melanotan II safe?","Safety is not established. Reported side effects include nausea, flushing, darkening of existing moles, and spontaneous erections; effects on melanoma risk are unverified. It should not be used outside regulated clinical research.",{"id":3660,"name":19042,"slug":19043,"description":19044,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":15,"views":2222,"shortDescription":19045,"peptideBenefits":19046,"benefits":19055,"peptideSideEffects":19060,"sideEffects":19065,"dosage":5043,"mechanism":19068,"safetyNote":19069,"citations":19070,"research":19086,"statsCache":19087,"imageUrl":19089,"molecularWeight":19090,"molecularFormula":19091,"pubchemId":19092,"sequence":538,"halfLife":19093,"administrationRoute":18037,"casNumber":19094,"smiles":19095,"totalMentions":861,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"aliases":19096,"researchAreas":19101,"evidence":19105,"keyStudies":19109,"limitations":19117,"pharmacology":19118,"faqs":19119,"lastReviewed":359},"Palmitoyl Tetrapeptide-7","palmitoyl-tetrapeptide-7","Palmitoyl Tetrapeptide-7 is a synthetic lipopeptide used in cosmetic skincare formulations for its anti-inflammatory and skin-rejuvenating properties. The peptide sequence is modified with palmitic acid to enhance penetration through the skin barrier. Research demonstrates Palmitoyl Tetrapeptide-7 reduces production of interleukin-6 (IL-6), a pro-inflammatory cytokine that increases with age and contributes to skin aging through \"inflammaging.\" By modulating inflammatory pathways, the peptide may reduce UV-induced damage, improve skin tone, and support healthy collagen maintenance. Studies show it works synergistically with other cosmetic peptides, particularly Palmitoyl Tripeptide-1 in the Matrixyl 3000 complex. Clinical evidence indicates improvements in skin smoothness, firmness, and reduction of fine lines with regular topical application. The anti-inflammatory mechanism distinguishes it from direct collagen-stimulating peptides. Palmitoyl Tetrapeptide-7 is considered safe for cosmetic use and is commonly found in anti-aging serums, eye creams, and moisturizers targeting mature skin.","Anti-inflammatory skin peptide for reducing age-related damage",[19047,19049,19051,19053],{"id":15897,"benefit":19048,"benefitCategory":5028,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Collagen density improvement",{"id":15902,"benefit":19050,"benefitCategory":5028,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Elasticity enhancement",{"id":15907,"benefit":19052,"benefitCategory":5028,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Hydration increase",{"id":15912,"benefit":19054,"benefitCategory":3649,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"IL-6 reduction",[19056,19057,19058,19059],{"id":15897,"benefit":19048,"benefitCategory":5028,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":15902,"benefit":19050,"benefitCategory":5028,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":15907,"benefit":19052,"benefitCategory":5028,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":15912,"benefit":19054,"benefitCategory":3649,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},[19061,19063],{"id":9762,"sideEffect":19062,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Excellent safety/tolerability",{"id":9766,"sideEffect":19064,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":5477,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Rare skin sensitivity",[19066,19067],{"id":9762,"sideEffect":19062,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":9766,"sideEffect":19064,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":5477,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Anti-inflammatory peptide for skin repair and rejuvenation","Generally safe for cosmetic use. Used in anti-aging formulations. Topical application well-tolerated.",[19071,19076,19081],{"id":19072,"title":19073,"authors":19074,"journal":9669,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":19075},1426,"Usage of Synthetic Peptides in Cosmetics for Sensitive Skin.","Resende DISP, Ferreira MS, Sousa-Lobo JM, Sousa E, Almeida IF","10.3390/ph14080702",{"id":19077,"title":19078,"authors":19079,"journal":14325,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":19080},1427,"Injectable polypeptide/chitosan hydrogel with loaded stem cells and rapid gelation promoting angiogenesis for diabetic wound healing.","Xing C, Hou L, Sun C, Chen H, Li Y, Li L, Wu Y, Li L, An H, Wen Y, Du H","10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2025.141578",{"id":19082,"title":19083,"authors":19084,"journal":3801,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":19085},1428,"Evaluation of dermal extracellular matrix and epidermal-dermal junction modifications using matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometric imaging, in vivo reflectance confocal microscopy, echography, and histology: effect of age and peptide applications.","Mondon P, Hillion M, Peschard O, Andre N, Marchand T, Doridot E, Feuilloley MG, Pionneau C, Chardonnet S","10.1111/jocd.12135",[],{"totalProtocols":2290,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":861,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":19088},"2026-01-05T22:12:01.994538","/images/peptides/palmitoyl-tetrapeptide-7.svg","547.0","C34H62N8O7","10078408","Variable (topical)","221227-05-0","CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC(=O)NCC(=O)N[C@@H](CCC(=O)N)C(=O)N1CCC[C@H]1C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCN=C(N)N)C(=O)O",[19042,19097,19098,19099,19100],"Pal-GQPR","Tetrapeptide-7 (palmitoylated)","Rigin","Matrixyl 3000 component (with palmitoyl tripeptide-1)",[19102,19103,19104],"Cosmetic anti-aging skincare","Skin 'inflammaging' and IL-6 modulation","Collagen / skin-matrix research",{"human":19106,"animal":23,"inVitro":19107,"uncertain":19108},"Human data come primarily from cosmetic formulation studies: e.g., a randomized controlled trial of a multi-component anti-aging eye cream containing palmitoyl tetrapeptide-7 reported improved periorbital wrinkles and tolerability (2024, PMID 38932444). Studies are typically small and industry-funded.","Fibroblast assays show palmitoyl tetrapeptide-7 (Pal-GQPR) suppresses IL-6, a pro-inflammatory cytokine implicated in age-related skin inflammation ('inflammaging'), and modulates extracellular matrix components.","Standalone clinical evidence for palmitoyl tetrapeptide-7 is limited; most published results come from multi-ingredient formulations (e.g., Matrixyl 3000) making attribution to this peptide alone difficult.",[19110,19114],{"finding":19111,"source":19112,"year":458,"link":19113,"evidenceLevel":46},"A randomized controlled study of a multi-component anti-aging eye cream containing palmitoyl tetrapeptide-7 showed reduced periorbital wrinkles and good tolerability.","Randomized controlled cosmetic study","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38932444/",{"finding":19115,"source":19116,"year":23,"link":23,"evidenceLevel":343},"In cultured fibroblasts, palmitoyl tetrapeptide-7 suppresses IL-6 production, consistent with an anti-inflammatory mechanism targeting skin 'inflammaging'.","In-vitro cell studies","No medical indications; evidence is dominated by cosmetic-claim studies on combination products; little independent research isolates the peptide; regulatory status is cosmetic ingredient (not a drug).","Topical cosmetic lipopeptide: palmitic acid conjugation enhances skin penetration; reported to inhibit IL-6-mediated inflammatory signaling in skin. No systemic pharmacokinetic data.",[19120,19123],{"question":19121,"answer":19122},"Is palmitoyl tetrapeptide-7 a drug?","No - it is a cosmetic ingredient used in topical skincare; it has no FDA-approved drug indications.",{"question":19124,"answer":19125},"What is its role in Matrixyl 3000?","Matrixyl 3000 combines palmitoyl tripeptide-1 with palmitoyl tetrapeptide-7; the tetrapeptide contributes anti-inflammatory (IL-6 suppression) activity while the tripeptide targets collagen synthesis.",{"id":1015,"name":19127,"slug":19128,"description":19129,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":15,"views":861,"shortDescription":19130,"peptideBenefits":19131,"benefits":19139,"peptideSideEffects":19144,"sideEffects":19149,"dosage":5043,"mechanism":19152,"safetyNote":19153,"citations":19154,"research":19283,"statsCache":19284,"imageUrl":19286,"molecularWeight":19287,"molecularFormula":19288,"pubchemId":19289,"halfLife":19093,"administrationRoute":18037,"casNumber":19290,"smiles":19291,"totalMentions":8,"dataCompleteness":1916,"hasResearchData":28,"aliases":19292,"researchAreas":19297,"evidence":19300,"keyStudies":19303,"limitations":19308,"pharmacology":19309,"faqs":19310,"lastReviewed":359},"Pentapeptide-18 (Leuphasyl)","pentapeptide-18","Pentapeptide-18 (Leuphasyl) is a synthetic cosmetic peptide that modulates neurotransmitter release at the neuromuscular junction, functioning as a safer alternative to botulinum toxin for reducing expression lines. The peptide mimics the activity of enkephalins, binding to opioid receptors on muscle cells and reducing acetylcholine release, thereby decreasing muscle contraction intensity. This \"Botox-like\" mechanism relaxes facial muscles without paralysis, softening dynamic wrinkles particularly in the forehead and around the eyes. Research demonstrates dose-dependent reduction in muscle cell activity in vitro. Clinical studies show improvements in wrinkle depth and skin smoothness when applied topically in appropriate cosmetic formulations. Unlike botulinum toxin injections, Pentapeptide-18 works gradually and subtly with continued use. The peptide is typically combined with other anti-aging ingredients for enhanced effects. It is considered safe for cosmetic use with no significant adverse effects. Leuphasyl provides a non-invasive option for consumers seeking wrinkle reduction without medical procedures.","Neurotransmitter-inhibiting peptide (Leuphasyl) for expression line reduction",[19132,19134,19135,19137],{"id":16061,"benefit":19133,"benefitCategory":5028,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Anti-wrinkle effects",{"id":16066,"benefit":18097,"benefitCategory":5028,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":16071,"benefit":19136,"benefitCategory":5028,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Sebum reduction",{"id":16076,"benefit":19138,"benefitCategory":5028,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Skin texture improvement",[19140,19141,19142,19143],{"id":16061,"benefit":19133,"benefitCategory":5028,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":16066,"benefit":18097,"benefitCategory":5028,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":16071,"benefit":19136,"benefitCategory":5028,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":16076,"benefit":19138,"benefitCategory":5028,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},[19145,19147],{"id":1857,"sideEffect":19146,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Well-tolerated topically",{"id":1859,"sideEffect":19148,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":5477,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Rare skin irritation",[19150,19151],{"id":1857,"sideEffect":19146,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":1859,"sideEffect":19148,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":5477,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Neurotransmitter inhibitor for expression wrinkle reduction","Generally safe for cosmetic topical use. Enkephalin analog for skin applications.",[19155,19160,19165,19169,19173,19177,19183,19187,19192,19195,19198,19203,19209,19212,19215,19221,19226,19232,19238,19244,19249,19255,19261,19267,19272,19277],{"id":19156,"title":19157,"authors":19158,"journal":516,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":19159},1459,"Solid Lipid Nanoparticles Incorporated with Retinol and Pentapeptide-18-Optimization, Characterization, and Cosmetic Application.","Pawłowska M, Marzec M, Jankowiak W, Nowak I","10.3390/ijms251810078",{"id":19161,"title":19162,"authors":19163,"journal":1006,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":19164},1460,"D-tyrosine adds an anti-melanogenic effect to cosmetic peptides.","Park J, Jung H, Jang B, Song HK, Han IO, Oh ES","10.1038/s41598-019-57159-3",{"id":19166,"title":19167,"authors":19158,"journal":4690,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":19168},1461,"Retinol and Oligopeptide-Loaded Lipid Nanocarriers as Effective Raw Material in Anti-Acne and Anti-Aging Therapies.","10.3390/life14101212",{"id":19170,"title":19171,"authors":19172,"journal":6526,"year":157,"citationType":167},1462,"Mu Receptors.","Herman TF, Cascella M, Muzio MR",{"id":19174,"title":19175,"authors":19176,"journal":6526,"year":249,"citationType":167},1463,"Cy5.5-Knottin 2.5F.","Chopra A",{"id":19178,"title":19179,"authors":19180,"journal":19181,"year":1152,"citationType":167,"doi":19182},1464,"QnrS1 structure-activity relationships.","Tavío MM, Jacoby GA, Hooper DC","The Journal of antimicrobial chemotherapy","10.1093/jac/dku102",{"id":19184,"title":19185,"authors":19186,"journal":6526,"year":249,"citationType":167},1465,"(68)Ga-Tetraazacyclododecane-N,N’,N’’,N’’’-tetraacetic acid-d-Glu-Glu-Glu-Glu-Glu-Glu-Ala-Tyr-Gly-Trp-Met-Asp-Phe-NH(2).","Leung K",{"id":19188,"title":19189,"authors":19190,"journal":12282,"year":260,"citationType":167,"doi":19191},1466,"Nodularins in poisoning.","Chen Y, Shen D, Fang D","10.1016/j.cca.2013.07.005",{"id":19193,"title":19194,"authors":19186,"journal":6526,"year":249,"citationType":167},1467,"(111)In-Tetraazacyclododecane-N,N’,N’’,N’’’-tetraacetic acid- d-Glu-Glu-Glu-Glu-Glu-Glu-Ala-Tyr-Gly-Trp-Met-Asp-Phe-NH(2).",{"id":19196,"title":19197,"authors":19176,"journal":6526,"year":249,"citationType":167},1468,"Cy5.5-Knottin 2.5D.",{"id":19199,"title":19200,"authors":19201,"journal":9864,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":19202},1469,"Targeting bactoprenol-coupled cell envelope precursors.","Ulm H, Schneider T","10.1007/s00253-016-7732-0",{"id":19204,"title":19205,"authors":19206,"journal":19207,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":19208},1470,"Hydrogelation tunability of bioinspired short peptides.","La Manna S, Florio D, Panzetta V, Roviello V, Netti PA, Di Natale C, Marasco D","Soft matter","10.1039/d2sm01385a",{"id":19210,"title":19211,"authors":19186,"journal":6526,"year":249,"citationType":167},1471,"(99m)Tc-Hydrazinonicotinic acid-cyclo[γ-d-Glu-Ala-Tyr-d-Lys]-Trp-Met-Phe-NH(2).",{"id":19213,"title":19214,"authors":19186,"journal":6526,"year":249,"citationType":167},1472,"(111)In-Tetraazacyclododecane-N,N’,N’’,N’’’-tetraacetic acid-Asp–Tyr(SO(3)H)–Met–Gly–Trp–Met–Asp–Phe–NH(2).",{"id":19216,"title":19217,"authors":19218,"journal":19219,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":19220},1473,"Positron Emission Tomography Molecular Imaging for Phenotyping and Management of Lymphoma.","Zhang X, Jiang H, Wu S, Wang J, Zhou R, He X, Qian S, Zhao S, Zhang H, Civelek AC, Tian M","Phenomics (Cham, Switzerland)","10.1007/s43657-021-00042-x",{"id":19222,"title":19223,"authors":19224,"journal":11650,"year":290,"citationType":167,"doi":19225},1474,"LHRH-(1-5): a bioactive peptide regulating reproduction.","Roberts JL, Mani SK, Woller MJ, Glucksman MJ, Wu TJ","10.1016/j.tem.2007.09.005",{"id":19227,"title":19228,"authors":19229,"journal":19230,"year":1105,"citationType":167,"doi":19231},1475,"Pentapeptide insertion mutagenesis of the Hoxa1 protein: mapping of transcription activation and DNA-binding regulatory domains.","Lambert B, Vandeputte J, Desmet PM, Hallet B, Remacle S, Rezsohazy R","Journal of cellular biochemistry","10.1002/jcb.22563",{"id":19233,"title":19234,"authors":19235,"journal":19236,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":19237},1476,"Effects of osteogenic growth peptide C-terminal pentapeptide and its analogue on bone remodeling in an osteoporosis rat model.","Ma Y, Zhang Y, Lin Y, Ding X, Zhang Y","Open medicine (Warsaw, Poland)","10.1515/med-2023-0656",{"id":19239,"title":19240,"authors":19241,"journal":19242,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":19243},1477,"Pentapeptide cRGDfK-Surface Engineered Nanostructured Lipid Carriers as an Efficient Tool for Targeted Delivery of Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitor for Battling Hepatocellular Carcinoma.","Deepak P, Kumar P, Pandey P, Arya DK, Jaiswal S, Kumar A, Sonkar AB, Ali D, Alarifi S, Ramar M, Rajinikanth PS","International journal of nanomedicine","10.2147/IJN.S438307",{"id":19245,"title":19246,"authors":19247,"journal":11947,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":19248},1478,"Single Amine or Guanidine Modification on Norvancomycin and Vancomycin to Overcome Multidrug-Resistance through Augmented Lipid II Binding and Increased Membrane Activity.","Bian X, Chen Z, Li F, Xie Y, Li Y, Luo Y, Zou X, Wang H, Zhang J, Wang X, Zhang J, Guan D","10.1021/acs.jmedchem.4c02196",{"id":19250,"title":19251,"authors":19252,"journal":19253,"year":173,"citationType":167,"doi":19254},1479,"Clinical effectiveness of nemifitide, a novel pentapeptide antidepressant, in depressed outpatients: comparison of follow-up re-treatment with initial treatment.","Feighner JP, Sverdlov L, Nicolau G, Abajian HB, Hlavka J, Freed JS, Tonelli G Jr","The international journal of neuropsychopharmacology","10.1017/S1461145703003481",{"id":19256,"title":19257,"authors":19258,"journal":19259,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":19260},1480,"Synthesis and Preclinical Evaluation of the Fibrin-Binding Cyclic Peptide (18)F-iCREKA: Comparison with Its Contrasted Linear Peptide.","Zhang Y, Wang L, Yu S, Hu K, Huang S, Li Y, Wu H, Li H, Wang Q","Contrast media & molecular imaging","10.1155/2019/6315954",{"id":19262,"title":19263,"authors":19264,"journal":19265,"year":260,"citationType":167,"doi":19266},1481,"Polyclonal antibody to soman-tyrosine.","Li B, Duysen EG, Froment MT, Masson P, Nachon F, Jiang W, Schopfer LM, Thiele GM, Klassen LW, Cashman J, Williams GR, Lockridge O","Chemical research in toxicology","10.1021/tx400027n",{"id":19268,"title":19269,"authors":19270,"journal":10914,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":19271},1482,"Environmentally Sensible Organocatalytic Fmoc/t-Bu Solid-Phase Peptide Synthesis.","Pawlas J, Rasmussen JH","10.1021/acs.orglett.2c00266",{"id":19273,"title":19274,"authors":19275,"journal":11947,"year":723,"citationType":167,"doi":19276},1483,"Design of low molecular weight hematoregulatory agents from the structure-activity relationship of a dimeric pentapeptide.","Cuthbertson AS, Husbyn M, Engebretsen M, Hartmann M, Lange M, Sandosham J, Fischer PM, Fjerdingstad H, Løvhaug D","10.1021/jm9702443",{"id":19278,"title":19279,"authors":19280,"journal":19281,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":19282},1484,"Docking on Lipid II-A Widespread Mechanism for Potent Bactericidal Activities of Antibiotic Peptides.","Grein F, Schneider T, Sahl HG","Journal of molecular biology","10.1016/j.jmb.2019.05.014",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":8,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":19285},"2026-01-05T22:12:04.536567","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/pentapeptide-18.webp","569.0","C29H39N5O7","10099522","64963-01-5","C[C@H](C(=O)NCC(=O)N[C@@H](CC1=CC=CC=C1)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(C)C)C(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@H](CC2=CC=C(C=C2)O)N",[19293,19294,19295,19296],"Leuphasyl","Pentapeptide-18 (INCI)","enkephalin-like pentapeptide","leuphasyl peptide solution",[19298,19299],"Topical anti-wrinkle cosmetics","Muscle-relaxing (expression-line) mechanism",{"human":23,"animal":23,"inVitro":19301,"uncertain":19302},"Laboratory and ex-vivo assays using muscle tissue models indicate leuphasyl reduces contraction of muscle fibers via an enkephalin-mimetic effect, which underpins its marketed 'Botox-like' wrinkle-smoothing mechanism. These are laboratory assays, not clinical proof of cosmetic efficacy.","Claims of wrinkle reduction comparable to botulinum toxin are not supported by published clinical trials; cosmetic efficacy claims rest largely on manufacturer-provided data and reviews of topical peptide studies.",[19304],{"finding":19305,"source":19306,"year":1384,"link":19307,"evidenceLevel":343},"A review of topical peptides notes pentapeptide-18 (leuphasyl) as one of the 'less invasive topical equivalents' of botulinum toxin, based on laboratory evidence of reduced muscle contraction.","review of in-vitro/ex-vivo topical peptide studies (International Journal of Cosmetic Science)","https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2494.2009.00490.x","Pentapeptide-18 is a cosmetic ingredient with no published randomized clinical trials of wrinkle reduction located in this review. The muscle-relaxation mechanism is demonstrated mainly in laboratory assays and manufacturer studies, and cosmetic claims are not FDA-reviewed.","Applied topically in cosmetic formulations; acts locally as an enkephalin-like pentapeptide proposed to reduce muscle contraction at the neuromuscular junction. No systemic pharmacokinetics are relevant for topical cosmetic use.",[19311,19314,19317],{"question":19312,"answer":19313},"What is pentapeptide-18?","A pentapeptide cosmetic ingredient (INCI name), also known as Leuphasyl, marketed as an enkephalin-like peptide that reduces muscle contraction for 'Botox-like' wrinkle-smoothing effects.",{"question":19315,"answer":19316},"Does pentapeptide-18 work like Botox?","Not in a clinical sense. Its mechanism is proposed to be muscle-relaxing in laboratory assays, but no published clinical trials demonstrate efficacy comparable to botulinum toxin.",{"question":19318,"answer":19319},"Is pentapeptide-18 approved as a drug?","No. It is a cosmetic ingredient, not a drug; cosmetic efficacy claims are not subject to FDA drug approval.",{"id":3772,"name":19321,"slug":19322,"description":19323,"fdaApproved":28,"wadaBanned":15,"views":5134,"shortDescription":19324,"peptideBenefits":19325,"benefits":19348,"peptideSideEffects":19359,"sideEffects":19395,"dosage":19411,"mechanism":19412,"safetyNote":19413,"athleteWarning":19414,"chemicalMakeup":19415,"citations":19416,"research":19630,"statsCache":19631,"imageUrl":19633,"molecularWeight":19634,"molecularFormula":19635,"drugbankId":19636,"pubchemId":19637,"sequence":19638,"halfLife":2228,"administrationRoute":540,"casNumber":19639,"smiles":19640,"totalMentions":2222,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"protocols":19641,"aliases":19655,"researchAreas":19660,"evidence":19663,"keyStudies":19667,"limitations":19675,"pharmacology":19676,"faqs":19677,"lastReviewed":359},"PT-141 (Bremelanotide)","pt-141","PT-141 (Bremelanotide), sold as Vyleesi, is the first FDA-approved medication that works through the brain to increase sexual desire. Unlike Viagra-type drugs that improve blood flow, PT-141 activates desire at its source — your central nervous system. **How does it work?** PT-141 activates melanocortin-4 receptors (MC4R) in your hypothalamus, the brain region that controls sexual arousal. It essentially \"turns on\" the neural pathways responsible for wanting sex, not just the physical ability to have it. **What the research shows:** • FDA-approved for hypoactive sexual desire disorder (HSDD) in premenopausal women • Clinical trials showed significant increases in desire, arousal, and satisfaction • Works within 45 minutes of injection • Effects can last up to 24 hours • Also studied for male erectile dysfunction (though not approved for this) **The discovery story:** PT-141 came from Melanotan II research. Scientists developing a tanning peptide noticed unexpected sexual arousal effects — leading to a whole new drug. **Common side effects:** Nausea (about 40% of users), flushing, and headache. Most side effects are temporary. **Important to know:** Administered as a subcutaneous injection at least 45 minutes before anticipated activity. Limited to 8 doses per month. --- **Sources:** FDA Prescribing Information for Vyleesi (2019) | Kingsberg SA, et al. (2019) Obstetrics & Gynecology | Clayton AH, et al. (2016) Journal of Sexual Medicine","Melanocortin receptor agonist FDA-approved for sexual dysfunction",[19326,19328,19330,19332,19334,19336,19338,19341,19343,19345],{"id":7460,"benefit":19327,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"FDA-approved libido enhancement",{"id":7463,"benefit":19329,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Sexual desire boost",{"id":9838,"benefit":19331,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Central nervous system activation",{"id":9844,"benefit":19333,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Effective in premenopausal women",{"id":8417,"benefit":19335,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Non-hormonal 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mg PRN","Melanocortin receptor agonist","FDA-approved with established safety profile. Common side effects include nausea and flushing.","Not WADA banned - antioxidant supplement safe for competitive athletes","Heptapeptide analog of α-MSH: Ac-Nle-Asp-His-D-Phe-Arg-Trp-Lys-OH",[19417,19422,19426,19432,19436,19442,19445,19451,19456,19461,19467,19473,19479,19485,19491,19497,19502,19508,19513,19518,19521,19526,19532,19537,19542,19547,19553,19558,19563,19569,19574,19580,19586,19592,19597,19603,19608,19610,19616,19621,19625],{"id":6873,"title":19418,"authors":155,"journal":19419,"year":157,"citationType":1024,"doi":19420,"researchPaperId":19421},"Bremelanotide for Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder: Long-term Safety","Journal of Sexual Medicine","10.1016/j.jsxm.2024.12.004","pubmed_39846877",{"id":6256,"title":19423,"authors":155,"journal":19419,"year":478,"citationType":4393,"doi":19424,"researchPaperId":19425},"PT-141 Efficacy in Premenopausal Women with HSDD","10.1016/j.jsxm.2023.06.006","pubmed_37365323",{"id":19427,"title":19428,"authors":19429,"journal":19430,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":19431},1534,"Small Effects, Questionable Outcomes: Bremelanotide for Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder.","Spielmans GI, Ellefson EM","Journal of sex research","10.1080/00224499.2023.2175192",{"id":19433,"title":19434,"authors":19435,"journal":6383,"year":249,"citationType":167},1506,"PT-141 Palatin.","Hedlund P",{"id":19437,"title":19438,"authors":19439,"journal":19440,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":19441},1507,"Medical Treatment of Female Sexual Dysfunction.","Nappi RE, Tiranini L, Martini E, Bosoni D, Righi A, Cucinella L","The Urologic clinics of North America","10.1016/j.ucl.2022.02.001",{"id":19443,"title":19444,"authors":6526,"journal":6526,"year":3074,"citationType":167},1508,"Bremelanotide.",{"id":19446,"title":19447,"authors":19448,"journal":19449,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":19450},1509,"Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder in Women: Physiology, Assessment, Diagnosis, and Treatment.","Pettigrew JA, Novick AM","Journal of midwifery & women's health","10.1111/jmwh.13283",{"id":19452,"title":19453,"authors":19454,"journal":2735,"year":173,"citationType":167,"doi":19455},1510,"PT-141: a melanocortin agonist for the treatment of sexual dysfunction.","Molinoff PB, Shadiack AM, Earle D, Diamond LE, Quon CY","10.1111/j.1749-6632.2003.tb03167.x",{"id":19457,"title":19458,"authors":19459,"journal":6786,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":19460},1511,"Bremelanotide: First Approval.","Dhillon S, Keam SJ","10.1007/s40265-019-01187-w",{"id":19462,"title":19463,"authors":19464,"journal":19465,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":19466},1512,"Targeting the central melanocortin system for the treatment of metabolic disorders.","Sweeney P, Gimenez LE, Hernandez CC, Cone RD","Nature reviews. Endocrinology","10.1038/s41574-023-00855-y",{"id":19468,"title":19469,"authors":19470,"journal":19471,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":19472},1513,"Pharmacologic therapeutic options for sexual dysfunction.","Burton CS, Mishra K","Current opinion in obstetrics & gynecology","10.1097/GCO.0000000000000821",{"id":19474,"title":19475,"authors":19476,"journal":19477,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":19478},1514,"Pharmacotherapy for Sexual Dysfunction in Women.","Lee JH, Lee JE, Harsh V, Clayton AH","Current psychiatry reports","10.1007/s11920-022-01322-7",{"id":19480,"title":19481,"authors":19482,"journal":19483,"year":243,"citationType":167,"doi":19484},1515,"Co-administration of low doses of intranasal PT-141, a melanocortin receptor agonist, and sildenafil to men with erectile dysfunction results in an enhanced erectile response.","Diamond LE, Earle DC, Garcia WD, Spana C","Urology","10.1016/j.urology.2004.10.060",{"id":19486,"title":19487,"authors":19488,"journal":19489,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":19490},1516,"New Drugs 2020, part 2.","Hussar DA","Nursing","10.1097/01.NURSE.0000659300.97243.8f",{"id":19492,"title":19493,"authors":19494,"journal":19495,"year":249,"citationType":167,"doi":19496},1517,"Evaluation of the safety, pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamic effects of subcutaneously administered PT-141, a melanocortin receptor agonist, in healthy male subjects and in patients with an inadequate response to Viagra.","Rosen RC, Diamond LE, Earle DC, Shadiack AM, Molinoff PB","International journal of impotence research","10.1038/sj.ijir.3901200",{"id":19498,"title":19499,"authors":19500,"journal":15232,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":19501},1518,"Sexual arousal: Sex matters.","Petherick A","10.1038/550S2a",{"id":19503,"title":19504,"authors":19505,"journal":19506,"year":290,"citationType":167,"doi":19507},1519,"Pharmaceutical aphrodisia.","Bridges TM","Current topics in medicinal chemistry","10.2174/156802607780906582",{"id":19509,"title":19510,"authors":19511,"journal":7853,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":19512},1520,"Management of Hypertension with Female Sexual Dysfunction.","Zhong Q, Anderson Y","10.3390/medicina58050637",{"id":19514,"title":19515,"authors":19516,"journal":19495,"year":249,"citationType":167,"doi":19517},1521,"Double-blind, placebo-controlled evaluation of the safety, pharmacokinetic properties and pharmacodynamic effects of intranasal PT-141, a melanocortin receptor agonist, in healthy males and patients with mild-to-moderate erectile dysfunction.","Diamond LE, Earle DC, Rosen RC, Willett MS, Molinoff PB","10.1038/sj.ijir.3901139",{"id":19519,"title":19520,"authors":6526,"journal":8251,"year":697,"citationType":167},1522,"Bremelanotide (Vyleesi) for hypoactive sexual desire disorder.",{"id":19522,"title":19523,"authors":19524,"journal":9669,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":19525},1523,"2019 FDA TIDES (Peptides and Oligonucleotides) Harvest.","Al Shaer D, Al Musaimi O, Albericio F, de la Torre BG","10.3390/ph13030040",{"id":19527,"title":19528,"authors":19529,"journal":19530,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":19531},1524,"Novel Pharmacologic Treatments of Female Sexual Dysfunction.","How A, Jowdy C, Novatcheva E, Clayton AH","Clinical obstetrics and gynecology","10.1097/GRF.0000000000000922",{"id":19533,"title":19534,"authors":19535,"journal":10544,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":19536},1525,"Finding Our Way From the Bench to the Bedside: The Ethos, Logos, and Pathos of Biomedical Research.","Kim NN","10.1016/j.sxmr.2022.06.001",{"id":19538,"title":19539,"authors":19540,"journal":3059,"year":3074,"citationType":167,"doi":19541},1526,"Melanocortin peptide therapeutics: historical milestones, clinical studies and commercialization.","Hadley ME, Dorr RT","10.1016/j.peptides.2005.01.029",{"id":19543,"title":19544,"authors":19545,"journal":1493,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":19546},1527,"Ligands for Melanocortin Receptors: Beyond Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormones and Adrenocorticotropin.","Yuan XC, Tao YX","10.3390/biom12101407",{"id":19548,"title":19549,"authors":19550,"journal":19551,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":19552},1528,"Bremelanotide for Treatment of Female Hypoactive Sexual Desire.","Edinoff AN, Sanders NM, Lewis KB, Apgar TL, Cornett EM, Kaye AM, Kaye AD","Neurology international","10.3390/neurolint14010006",{"id":19554,"title":19555,"authors":19556,"journal":6983,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":19557},1529,"Intravenous peptides and amino acids for erectile dysfunction: a narrative review of current applications and future directions.","Ila V, Pozzi E, Gamage M, Ramasamy R","10.1080/14656566.2025.2478912",{"id":19559,"title":19560,"authors":19561,"journal":13191,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":19562},1530,"Bremelanotide: New Drug Approved for Treating Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder.","Mayer D, Lynch SE","10.1177/1060028019899152",{"id":19564,"title":19565,"authors":19566,"journal":19567,"year":3074,"citationType":167,"doi":19568},1531,"An effect on the subjective sexual response in premenopausal women with sexual arousal disorder by bremelanotide (PT-141), a melanocortin receptor agonist.","Diamond LE, Earle DC, Heiman JR, Rosen RC, Perelman MA, Harning R","The journal of sexual medicine","10.1111/j.1743-6109.2006.00268.x",{"id":19570,"title":19571,"authors":19572,"journal":6983,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":19573},1532,"An evaluation of bremelanotide injection for the treatment of hypoactive sexual desire disorder.","Cipriani S, Alfaroli C, Maseroli E, Vignozzi L","10.1080/14656566.2022.2132144",{"id":19575,"title":19576,"authors":19577,"journal":19578,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":19579},1533,"Bremelanotide and flibanserin for low sexual desire in women: the fallacy of regulatory precedent.","Mintzes B, Tiefer L, Cosgrove L","Drug and therapeutics bulletin","10.1136/dtb.2021.000020",{"id":19581,"title":19582,"authors":19583,"journal":19584,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":19585},1535,"The neurobiology of bremelanotide for the treatment of hypoactive sexual desire disorder in premenopausal women.","Pfaus JG, Sadiq A, Spana C, Clayton AH","CNS spectrums","10.1017/S109285292100002X",{"id":19587,"title":19588,"authors":19589,"journal":19590,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":19591},1536,"Safety Profile of Bremelanotide Across the Clinical Development Program.","Clayton AH, Kingsberg SA, Portman D, Sadiq A, Krop J, Jordan R, Lucas J, Simon JA","Journal of women's health (2002)","10.1089/jwh.2021.0191",{"id":19593,"title":19594,"authors":19595,"journal":19506,"year":290,"citationType":167,"doi":19596},1537,"Melanocortins in the treatment of male and female sexual dysfunction.","Shadiack AM, Sharma SD, Earle DC, Spana C, Hallam TJ","10.2174/156802607780906681",{"id":19598,"title":19599,"authors":19600,"journal":19601,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":19602},1538,"Bremelanotide for the Treatment of Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder: Two Randomized Phase 3 Trials.","Kingsberg SA, Clayton AH, Portman D, Williams LA, Krop J, Jordan R, Lucas J, Simon JA","Obstetrics and gynecology","10.1097/AOG.0000000000003500",{"id":19604,"title":19605,"authors":19606,"journal":19590,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":19607},1539,"Prespecified and Integrated Subgroup Analyses from the RECONNECT Phase 3 Studies of Bremelanotide.","Simon JA, Kingsberg SA, Portman D, Jordan R, Lucas J, Sadiq A, Krop J, Clayton AH","10.1089/jwh.2021.0225",{"id":19609,"title":6425,"authors":6426,"journal":6427,"year":243,"citationType":167},1540,{"id":19611,"title":19612,"authors":19613,"journal":19614,"year":920,"citationType":167,"doi":19615},1541,"Epidemiological markers of Salmonella typhimurium isolates in Rome.","Martini A, Filetici E, Fantasia M","Journal of medical microbiology","10.1099/00222615-37-2-104",{"id":19617,"title":19618,"authors":19619,"journal":18483,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":19620},1542,"Antagonistic Activities of Novel Peptides from Bacillus amyloliquefaciens PT14 against Fusarium solani and Fusarium oxysporum.","Kim YG, Kang HK, Kwon KD, Seo CH, Lee HB, Park Y","10.1021/acs.jafc.5b04068",{"id":19622,"title":19623,"authors":19624,"journal":19506,"year":290,"citationType":167},1543,"Melanocortin receptors, melanotropic peptides and penile erection.","King SH, Mayorov AV, Balse-Srinivasan P, Hruby VJ, Vanderah TW, Wessells H",{"id":19626,"title":19627,"authors":19628,"journal":1481,"year":249,"citationType":167,"doi":19629},1544,"Selective facilitation of sexual solicitation in the female rat by a melanocortin receptor agonist.","Pfaus JG, Shadiack A, Van Soest T, Tse M, Molinoff P","10.1073/pnas.0400491101",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":2222,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":19632},"2026-01-05T22:12:19.504178","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/pt-141.webp","1025.18","C50H68N14O10","DB11648","9941379","Ac-Nle-cyclo[Asp-His-D-Phe-Arg-Trp-Lys]-OH","189691-06-3","CCCC[C@@H](C(=O)N[C@H]1CC(=O)NCCCC[C@H](NC(=O)[C@@H](NC(=O)[C@@H](NC(=O)[C@H](NC(=O)[C@@H](NC1=O)CC2=CN=CN2)CC3=CC=CC=C3)CCCN=C(N)N)CC4=CNC5=CC=CC=C54)C(=O)O)NC(=O)C",[19642,19646,19649,19652],{"name":19643,"dose":19644,"frequency":19645,"route":8576},"Female HSDD (FDA-approved)","1.75mg","As needed, max 1 dose/24hr",{"name":19647,"dose":17113,"frequency":19648,"route":311},"Male Erectile Dysfunction","As needed, 45-60min before activity",{"name":19650,"dose":19651,"frequency":19645,"route":311},"Female Arousal Disorder","0.75-1.25mg",{"name":19653,"dose":9208,"frequency":19654,"route":311},"Low Starting Dose","Test dose to assess tolerance",[19656,19657,19658,19659],"PT-141","Bremelanotide","Vyleesi","melanocortin receptor agonist (α-MSH analog)",[19661,19662,19016,19015],"Hypoactive sexual desire disorder (HSDD)","Female sexual dysfunction",{"human":19664,"animal":19665,"inVitro":19666,"uncertain":23},"Bremelanotide is FDA approved (June 2019, brand Vyleesi) for acquired, generalized HSDD in premenopausal women. The phase 3 RECONNECT trials showed significant improvements in sexual desire and reduced distress versus placebo, with common side effects including nausea, flushing, and transient blood pressure increases.","Animal studies show that melanocortin agonists of the PT-141/melanotan lineage activate central MC3/MC4 receptors to stimulate sexual arousal and erectile responses in rodents.","Binding and functional assays confirm bremelanotide is a potent, nonselective agonist at melanocortin receptors (MC1R, MC3R, MC4R), a cyclic heptapeptide analog of alpha-MSH.",[19668,19672],{"finding":19669,"source":19670,"year":697,"link":19671,"evidenceLevel":46},"Two phase 3 trials (RECONNECT) found bremelanotide significantly improved sexual desire and reduced distress versus placebo in premenopausal women with HSDD; effects on some co-primary endpoints (e.g., satisfying sexual events) were mixed.","Two randomized phase 3 trials (Obstetrics & Gynecology)","https://doi.org/10.1097/AOG.0000000000003500",{"finding":19673,"source":19674,"year":697,"link":19029,"evidenceLevel":46},"The FDA approved Vyleesi (bremelanotide) 1.75 mg subcutaneous autoinjection for acquired, generalized hypoactive sexual desire disorder in premenopausal women.","FDA approval (2019)","Approval is limited to premenopausal women with acquired, generalized HSDD; benefits are modest, nausea is frequent, blood pressure elevations warrant warnings in hypertensive or cardiovascular patients, and long-term data are still accumulating. Use in men or as a general 'libido' drug is not approved.","Bremelanotide is a cyclic heptapeptide melanocortin receptor agonist (MC1R/MC3R/MC4R) administered by subcutaneous injection (Vyleesi 1.75 mg) on demand, with effects on desire typically beginning within about an hour. As a peptide it has limited oral bioavailability.",[19678,19681,19684],{"question":19679,"answer":19680},"Is PT-141/bremelanotide FDA approved?","Yes - as Vyleesi (bremelanotide) in 2019 for acquired, generalized hypoactive sexual desire disorder in premenopausal women.",{"question":19682,"answer":19683},"How is it taken?","As a subcutaneous autoinjection on demand (1.75 mg), typically about 45 minutes before anticipated sexual activity.",{"question":19685,"answer":19686},"What are the common side effects?","Nausea, flushing, injection-site reactions, and transient blood pressure increases; it carries warnings for people with uncontrolled hypertension or cardiovascular disease.",{"id":5139,"name":19688,"slug":19689,"description":19690,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":15,"views":2222,"researchStatus":19691,"peptideBenefits":19692,"benefits":19700,"peptideSideEffects":19706,"sideEffects":19712,"dosage":19717,"mechanism":19718,"safetyNote":19719,"athleteWarning":19720,"chemicalMakeup":19721,"citations":19722,"research":19867,"statsCache":19868,"imageUrl":19870,"molecularWeight":19871,"molecularFormula":19872,"pubchemId":19873,"sequence":19874,"halfLife":18265,"administrationRoute":18037,"casNumber":19875,"smiles":19876,"totalMentions":8,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"protocols":19877,"aliases":19899,"researchAreas":19903,"evidence":19907,"keyStudies":19911,"limitations":19918,"pharmacology":19919,"faqs":19920,"lastReviewed":359},"SNAP-8","snap-8","SNAP-8 (Acetyl Octapeptide-3) is an advanced cosmetic peptide designed to reduce the appearance of expression lines, particularly in the forehead and around the eyes. It functions as a neurotransmitter release inhibitor by targeting the SNARE complex, the same mechanism exploited by botulinum toxin but through topical application rather than injection. SNAP-8 is an elongated analog of Argireline (Acetyl Hexapeptide-3) with potentially enhanced efficacy. The peptide competes with SNAP-25, a protein essential for neurotransmitter vesicle fusion, thereby reducing acetylcholine release and muscle contraction intensity. Research demonstrates dose-dependent wrinkle reduction with regular topical application. Clinical studies show improvements in wrinkle depth up to 63% after 28 days of treatment in optimal formulations. Unlike neuromodulator injections, topical peptides produce gradual, subtle effects suitable for consumers preferring non-invasive approaches. SNAP-8 is considered safe for cosmetic use and is commonly found in high-end anti-aging products targeting dynamic wrinkles.","Cosmetic ingredient - Octapeptide",[19693,19694,19696,19697,19699],{"id":3389,"benefit":18095,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3394,"benefit":19695,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Fine line smoothing",{"id":3399,"benefit":34,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3405,"benefit":19698,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Non-invasive alternative to Botox",{"id":3410,"benefit":18111,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},[19701,19702,19703,19704,19705],{"id":3389,"benefit":18095,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3394,"benefit":19695,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3399,"benefit":34,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3405,"benefit":19698,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3410,"benefit":18111,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},[19707,19708,19709,19711],{"id":9411,"sideEffect":18004,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":9416,"sideEffect":18012,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":9399,"sideEffect":19710,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Topical redness",{"id":9405,"sideEffect":18006,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},[19713,19714,19715,19716],{"id":9411,"sideEffect":18004,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":9416,"sideEffect":18012,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":9399,"sideEffect":19710,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":9405,"sideEffect":18006,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"5-10% topical solution","Enhanced version of Argireline for superior wrinkle reduction","Generally considered safe for topical cosmetic use. Limited systemic absorption when applied topically.","f","Octapeptide Ac-Glu-Glu-Met-Gln-Arg-Arg-Ala-Asp-NH₂",[19723,19728,19734,19740,19745,19751,19757,19762,19767,19773,19779,19784,19790,19796,19802,19808,19814,19820,19826,19832,19838,19844,19849,19855,19861],{"id":19724,"title":19725,"authors":19726,"journal":9356,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":19727},1733,"Emergency Allotments in SNAP and Food Hardship Among Households With Children.","Austin AE, Sokol RL","10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.28680",{"id":19729,"title":19730,"authors":19731,"journal":19732,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":19733},1713,"Lessons learned from implementing SNAP-Ed in a nursing/K-8 partnership school during the pandemic.","Francis L, Patel A, Hasan A, Kylander O, Williams L, Levin MB, Sharps PW","Public health nursing (Boston, Mass.)","10.1111/phn.13031",{"id":19735,"title":19736,"authors":19737,"journal":19738,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":19739},1714,"SNAP Participation and Emergency Department Use.","Sonik RA, Coleman-Jensen A, Creedon TB, Yang X","Pediatrics","10.1542/peds.2022-058247",{"id":19741,"title":19742,"authors":19743,"journal":5338,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":19744},1715,"Photo-SNAP-tag, a Light-Regulated Chemical Labeling System.","Cleveland JD, Tucker CL","10.1021/acschembio.0c00412",{"id":19746,"title":19747,"authors":19748,"journal":19749,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":19750},1716,"Platelet Membrane Coated Cu(9)S(8)-SNAP for Targeting NIR-II Mild Photothermal Enhanced Chemodynamic/Gas Therapy of Triple-Negative Breast Cancer.","Wu D, Chen X, Yao S, He Y, Chen G, Hu X, Chen Y, Lv Z, Yu J, Jin K, Cai Y, Mou X","Small (Weinheim an der Bergstrasse, Germany)","10.1002/smll.202400919",{"id":19752,"title":19753,"authors":19754,"journal":19755,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":19756},1717,"SNAP work requirements increase mental health care use.","Allen L, Henry D, Atwood A","Health services research","10.1111/1475-6773.14033",{"id":19758,"title":19759,"authors":19760,"journal":5586,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":19761},1718,"SNAP-25, a Known Presynaptic Protein with Emerging Postsynaptic Functions.","Antonucci F, Corradini I, Fossati G, Tomasoni R, Menna E, Matteoli M","10.3389/fnsyn.2016.00007",{"id":19763,"title":19764,"authors":19765,"journal":17813,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":19766},1719,"8-Nitro-cGMP Attenuates the Interaction between SNARE Complex and Complexin through S-Guanylation of SNAP-25.","Kishimoto Y, Kunieda K, Kitamura A, Kakihana Y, Akaike T, Ihara H","10.1021/acschemneuro.7b00363",{"id":19768,"title":19769,"authors":19770,"journal":19771,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":19772},1720,"Applications of SNAP-tag technology in skin cancer therapy.","Padayachee ER, Adeola HA, Van Wyk JC, Nsole Biteghe FA, Chetty S, Khumalo NP, Barth S","Health science reports","10.1002/hsr2.103",{"id":19774,"title":19775,"authors":19776,"journal":19777,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":19778},1721,"Electrophysiology of ataxia-telangiectasia-like disorder 1.","Elmalik SA","Sudanese journal of paediatrics","10.24911/SJP.106-1703054783",{"id":19780,"title":19781,"authors":19782,"journal":703,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":19783},1722,"SNAP-25 S-Guanylation and SNARE Complex Formation.","Kishimoto Y, Akaike T, Ihara H","10.1007/978-1-4939-8760-3_9",{"id":19785,"title":19786,"authors":19787,"journal":19788,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":19789},1723,"The Effects of SNAP Work Requirements in Reducing Participation and Benefits From 2013 to 2017.","Ku L, Brantley E, Pillai D","American journal of public health","10.2105/AJPH.2019.305232",{"id":19791,"title":19792,"authors":19793,"journal":19794,"year":1122,"citationType":167,"doi":19795},1724,"Self-harm subscale of the Schedule for Nonadaptive and Adaptive Personality (SNAP): predicting suicide attempts over 8 years of follow-up.","Yen S, Shea MT, Walsh Z, Edelen MO, Hopwood CJ, Markowitz JC, Ansell EB, Morey LC, Grilo CM, Sanislow CA, Skodol AE, Gunderson JG, Zanarini MC, McGlashan TH","The Journal of clinical psychiatry","10.4088/JCP.09m05583blu",{"id":19797,"title":19798,"authors":19799,"journal":19800,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":19801},1725,"Stretch your SNAP: Stakeholder perspectives of a novel benefits program to enhance diet quality.","Smith DI, Tatum KL, Lefbom L, Moore B, Barnard R, Harnack L, Foster B, Bean MK","Preventive medicine reports","10.1016/j.pmedr.2024.102676",{"id":19803,"title":19804,"authors":19805,"journal":19806,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":19807},1726,"Food insecurity and SNAP use among sexual minority people: analysis of a population-based sample from National Health Interview Survey, 2017.","Jabson Tree JM, Russomanno J, Bartmess M, Anderson JG","BMC public health","10.1186/s12889-022-13391-7",{"id":19809,"title":19810,"authors":19811,"journal":19812,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":19813},1727,"Adoption Of Standard Medical Deduction Increased SNAP Enrollment And Benefits In 21 Participating States.","Li J, Zuo D, Heflin CM","Health affairs (Project Hope)","10.1377/hlthaff.2022.01575",{"id":19815,"title":19816,"authors":19817,"journal":19818,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":19819},1728,"The potential impact of Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) restrictions on expenditures: a systematic review.","Cuffey J, Beatty TK, Harnack L","Public health nutrition","10.1017/S1368980015003511",{"id":19821,"title":19822,"authors":19823,"journal":19824,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":19825},1729,"Food Insufficiency, Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) Status, and 9-Year Trajectory of Cognitive Function in Older Adults: The Longitudinal National Health and Aging Trends Study, 2012-2020.","Na M, Dou N, Brown MJ, Chen-Edinboro LP, Anderson LR, Wennberg A","The Journal of nutrition","10.1016/j.tjnut.2022.12.012",{"id":19827,"title":19828,"authors":19829,"journal":19830,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":19831},1730,"E-health Dietary Interventions for Participants of SNAP and WIC: A Systematic Review.","Crespo-Bellido M, Fernandez Ong J, Yaroch A, Byker Shanks C","Current developments in nutrition","10.1016/j.cdnut.2024.102099",{"id":19833,"title":19834,"authors":19835,"journal":19836,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":19837},1731,"An Assessment of the Relationship of SNAP and Anemia Among School-Aged Children and Adolescents Living in Households With Food Insecurity.","Adeyemi OJ, Stullken JD, Baah EG, Olagbemiro N, Huber LR","Inquiry : a journal of medical care organization, provision and financing","10.1177/00469580211067498",{"id":19839,"title":19840,"authors":19841,"journal":19842,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":19843},1732,"Snap-fits and upper limb functional limitations in German automotive workers.","Ohlander J, Keskin MC, Weiler S, Stork J, Radon K","Occupational medicine (Oxford, England)","10.1093/occmed/kqw050",{"id":19845,"title":19846,"authors":19847,"journal":5309,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":19848},1734,"γ-SNAP stimulates disassembly of endosomal SNARE complexes and regulates endocytic trafficking pathways.","Inoue H, Matsuzaki Y, Tanaka A, Hosoi K, Ichimura K, Arasaki K, Wakana Y, Asano K, Tanaka M, Okuzaki D, Yamamoto A, Tani K, Tagaya M","10.1242/jcs.158634",{"id":19850,"title":19851,"authors":19852,"journal":19853,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":19854},1735,"The SNAP-25 linker supports fusion intermediates by local lipid interactions.","Shaaban A, Dhara M, Frisch W, Harb A, Shaib AH, Becherer U, Bruns D, Mohrmann R","eLife","10.7554/eLife.41720",{"id":19856,"title":19857,"authors":19858,"journal":19859,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":19860},1736,"Evaluation of the SNAP® 4Dx® plus test for the detection of Dirofilaria immitis antigen and characterization of exposure to tick-borne pathogens in wild canids in southern Ontario.","Kotwa JD, Jardine CM, Pearl DL, Berke O, Mercer NJ, Peregrine AS","Veterinary parasitology","10.1016/j.vetpar.2020.109176",{"id":19862,"title":19863,"authors":19864,"journal":19865,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":19866},1737,"Electrodiagnostic Evaluation of Meralgia Paresthetica.","Avsenik J, Podnar S","NeuroSci","10.3390/neurosci6030058",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":8,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":19869},"2026-01-05T22:12:18.954631","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/snap-8.webp","1075.0","C42H72N16O15S","71587832","Ac-EEMQRRND-NH2","868844-74-0","C[C@@H](C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(=O)O)C(=O)N)NC(=O)[C@H](CCCN=C(N)N)NC(=O)[C@H](CCCN=C(N)N)NC(=O)[C@H](CCC(=O)N)NC(=O)[C@H](CCSC)NC(=O)[C@H](CCC(=O)O)NC(=C)[C@H](CCC(=O)O)NC(=O)C",[19878,19882,19886,19889,19891,19895],{"name":19879,"dose":19880,"frequency":5807,"route":19881},"General Anti-Aging","3-5% concentration","Topical serum/cream",{"name":19883,"dose":19884,"frequency":5807,"route":19885},"Intensive Wrinkle Treatment","5-10% concentration","Targeted application",{"name":19887,"dose":19880,"frequency":5807,"route":19888},"Eye Area Treatment","Eye cream/serum",{"name":19890,"dose":19884,"frequency":5807,"route":3994},"Forehead Lines",{"name":19892,"dose":19893,"frequency":3984,"route":19894},"Preventive Use","3% concentration","Daily moisturizer",{"name":19896,"dose":19897,"frequency":5807,"route":19898},"Combined Peptide Protocol","3-5% with other peptides","Multi-peptide serum",[19688,19900,19901,19902],"acetyl octapeptide-3","Ac-Glu-Glu-Met-Gln-Arg-Arg-Ala-Asp-NH2","octapeptide-3",[19904,19905,19906],"Cosmetic anti-wrinkle (expression lines)","Neuromuscular junction peptide mimetics","Topical anti-aging",{"human":19908,"animal":23,"inVitro":19909,"uncertain":19910},"No large independent published human trials of SNAP-8 were identified; available clinical data come primarily from manufacturer-sponsored cosmetic studies reporting reduced wrinkle depth with topical use.","Mechanistic studies of synthetic peptides mimicking the N-terminal domain of SNAP-25 (the structural family SNAP-8 belongs to) show inhibition of SNARE complex formation, the proposed basis for the peptide's Botox-like, wrinkle-relaxing mechanism.","Claims that SNAP-8 is a 'natural Botox' that visibly relaxes expression lines rest on company studies and in vitro SNARE-inhibition data; independent peer-reviewed clinical evidence is scarce, and effects are far weaker and more variable than injectables.",[19912,19915],{"finding":19913,"source":19914,"year":23,"link":23,"evidenceLevel":343},"In vitro studies of SNAP-25 N-terminal mimetic peptides (the family SNAP-8 belongs to) demonstrate interference with SNARE complex assembly, the proposed mechanism for reducing muscle-driven wrinkle formation.","In vitro mechanistic studies (peptide neurotoxin-mimetic research)",{"finding":19916,"source":19917,"year":23,"link":23,"evidenceLevel":46},"Manufacturer-sponsored cosmetic studies report reduced wrinkle depth and severity with topical acetyl octapeptide-3 (SNAP-8) formulations; these have not been independently replicated in peer-reviewed literature.","Manufacturer-sponsored cosmetic clinical studies","Published, independent human data are essentially absent; the evidence base is in vitro mechanism plus company-conducted cosmetic trials. SNAP-8 is a cosmetic ingredient, not a drug, and results vary by formulation and outcome measure.","SNAP-8 is an acetylated octapeptide (Ac-Glu-Glu-Met-Gln-Arg-Arg-Ala-Asp-NH2) developed as a topical cosmetic active designed to mimic part of the SNAP-25 protein to interfere with SNARE-mediated vesicle release at neuromuscular junctions. As a topical cosmetic it is not administered systemically, so no systemic pharmacokinetics apply.",[19921,19924,19927],{"question":19922,"answer":19923},"Does SNAP-8 work like Botox?","It is designed to mimic a SNAP-25 fragment to interfere with the same release machinery Botox targets, but it is a topical cosmetic with much weaker, more variable effects and no injectable approval.",{"question":19925,"answer":19926},"Is there strong clinical evidence?","Independent published trials are lacking; supporting data are in vitro mechanism studies and manufacturer-sponsored cosmetic trials.",{"question":19928,"answer":19929},"Should SNAP-8 be injected?","SNAP-8 is intended as a topical cosmetic ingredient; injectable use is not an approved or clinically validated route.",{"id":5122,"name":19931,"slug":19932,"description":19933,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":15,"views":8,"shortDescription":19934,"researchStatus":19935,"dosage":8335,"mechanism":19936,"safetyNote":19937,"athleteWarning":23,"chemicalMakeup":23,"molecularWeight":23,"molecularFormula":23,"sequence":23,"halfLife":19938,"administrationRoute":5863,"benefits":19939,"peptideBenefits":19946,"sideEffects":19950,"peptideSideEffects":19951,"citations":19952,"protocols":19962,"compatiblePeptides":19967,"research":19977,"statsCache":19978,"imageUrl":19979,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"totalMentions":8,"aliases":19980,"researchAreas":19986,"evidence":19991,"keyStudies":19996,"limitations":20005,"pharmacology":20006,"faqs":20007,"lastReviewed":359},"Melanotan I","melanotan-1","Melanotan I (afamelanotide) is a synthetic analog of α-melanocyte stimulating hormone that selectively targets MC1 receptors to stimulate melanin production. While an FDA-approved implant version (SCENESSE®) exists for rare medical conditions, research-grade injectable Melanotan I is studied for its photoprotective and tanning effects through regular subcutaneous administration.","Melanotan I (afamelanotide) is a synthetic analog of α-melanocyte stimulating hormone that selectively targets MC1 receptors to stimulate melanin production.","Research peptide - not approved for human consumption; FDA-approved SCENESSE® implant exists for rare conditions","Subcutaneous injection delivers Melanotan I directly into systemic circulation with 100% bioavailability. 30-minute half-life requires multiple daily injections for sustained MC1R activation and melanin production.","Research peptide - not approved for human consumption, sold for research purposes only. Start with lower doses to assess individual tolerance and response. Monitor moles and skin changes - perform regular self-examinations. Use proper sterile injection technique to prevent infections. Maintain UV protection despite enhanced tanning - still risk of overexposure.","~30 minutes systemic; depot effect days",[19940,19942,19944],{"id":14100,"benefit":19941,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":15},"Research-grade injectable Melanotan I provides precise dosing control and rapid onset of tanning effects",{"id":14105,"benefit":19943,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":15},"Unlike the FDA-approved SCENESSE® implant, injectable form allows flexible dosing and can be administered at home",{"id":14111,"benefit":19945,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":15},"Produces visible tanning within 1-2 weeks with proper UV exposure",[19947,19948,19949],{"id":14100,"benefit":19941,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":15},{"id":14105,"benefit":19943,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":15},{"id":14111,"benefit":19945,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":15},[],[],[19953,19956,19959],{"id":19954,"title":19955,"authors":155,"journal":5900,"year":3074,"citationType":24,"doi":155,"researchPaperId":23},2153,"Safety Profile Assessment (2006)",{"id":19957,"title":19958,"authors":155,"journal":5900,"year":249,"citationType":24,"doi":155,"researchPaperId":23},2154,"MT-I Photoprotection Study (2004)",{"id":19960,"title":19961,"authors":155,"journal":5900,"year":173,"citationType":24,"doi":155,"researchPaperId":23},2155,"Tanning Efficacy Comparison (2003)",[19963,19964,19965,19966],{"name":18852,"dose":8335,"frequency":5807,"route":5382},{"name":18854,"dose":9208,"frequency":3989,"route":5382},{"name":18856,"dose":9208,"frequency":5807,"route":5382},{"name":18858,"dose":8335,"frequency":3989,"route":5382},[19968,19969,19971,19973,19975],{"slug":18895,"status":5922,"note":23},{"slug":19970,"status":5922,"note":23},"uv-exposure",{"slug":19972,"status":6006,"note":6007},"tretinoin-retinoids",{"slug":19974,"status":6006,"note":6208},"photosensitizing-medications",{"slug":19976,"status":5922,"note":23},"self-tanning-products",[],{"totalProtocols":2486,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":8,"researchPaperCount":2222,"lastCalculated":23},"/images/peptides/melanotan-1.svg",[19931,19981,19982,19983,19984,19985],"Afamelanotide (approved pharmaceutical form)","Scenesse (brand)","[Nle4-D-Phe7]-α-MSH","NDP-MSH","MT-1",[19987,19988,19989,19990],"Erythropoietic protoporphyria (EPP)","Photoprotection / pain-free light exposure","Melanogenesis via melanocortin-1 receptor","Cosmetic tanning (unapproved use)",{"human":19992,"animal":19993,"inVitro":19994,"uncertain":19995},"Afamelanotide (the approved 'melanotan I' analog) is FDA-approved (2019) and EMA-approved for erythropoietic protoporphyria; a placebo-controlled trial (NEJM 2015) showed increased pain-free light exposure and improved quality of life in EPP patients.","Preclinical models demonstrate MC1R-mediated eumelanin synthesis and photoprotective effects.","In vitro studies show NDP-MSH activation of the melanocortin-1 receptor stimulates melanogenesis in melanocytes.","Use of unregulated 'melanotan' products for cosmetic tanning is not FDA-approved; safety (e.g., changes in nevi, melanoma risk) is not established, and dermatology organizations have warned against unregulated use.",[19997,20001],{"finding":19998,"source":19999,"year":1516,"link":20000,"evidenceLevel":46},"In a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, afamelanotide increased pain-free light exposure and reduced phototoxic symptoms in patients with erythropoietic protoporphyria.","Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial (N Engl J Med)","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26132941/",{"finding":20002,"source":20003,"year":697,"link":20004,"evidenceLevel":46},"FDA approved afamelanotide (Scenesse) to increase pain-free light exposure in adults with erythropoietic protoporphyria.","FDA approval (October 2019)","https://www.drugs.com/newdrugs/fda-approves-scenesse-afamelanotide-prevention-phototoxicity-erythropoietic-protoporphyria-5073.html","Approved only for EPP; cosmetic tanning use is unapproved and poorly studied; long-term skin cancer risk of melanotan-style products is unknown; the unregulated 'melanotan I/II' sold online is not pharmaceutical grade and varies in purity and dose.","Synthetic 13-amino-acid analog of α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH), [Nle4-D-Phe7]-α-MSH (NDP-MSH); a potent melanocortin-1 receptor (MC1R) agonist that drives eumelanin production. Afamelanotide is administered as a 16 mg subcutaneous implant with controlled release over approximately 2 months.",[20008,20011],{"question":20009,"answer":20010},"Is Melanotan I the same as the FDA-approved drug?","The approved drug Scenesse is afamelanotide, a pharmaceutical form of 'melanotan I' (NDP-MSH), approved only for erythropoietic protoporphyria — not for tanning.",{"question":20012,"answer":20013},"Is melanotan safe for tanning?","Unregulated melanotan use for tanning is not approved; safety data are lacking and dermatology organizations have issued warnings.","https://cbzugwmbrmdvvkvtjpnn.supabase.co/storage/v1/object/public/peptide_category_icons/healthy_skin.png",{"id":532,"slug":20016,"title":20017,"display_order":8,"peptides":20018,"icon":21390},"wellness-recovery","Wellness & Recovery",[20019,20244,20595,20850,21144,21214,21314],{"id":3664,"name":20020,"slug":20021,"description":20022,"fdaApproved":28,"wadaBanned":15,"views":2486,"shortDescription":20023,"researchStatus":12455,"peptideBenefits":20024,"benefits":20036,"peptideSideEffects":20043,"sideEffects":20057,"dosage":20065,"mechanism":20066,"safetyNote":20067,"athleteWarning":20068,"chemicalMakeup":20069,"citations":20070,"research":20196,"statsCache":20197,"imageUrl":20199,"molecularWeight":20200,"molecularFormula":20201,"drugbankId":20202,"pubchemId":20203,"sequence":20204,"halfLife":20205,"administrationRoute":16463,"casNumber":20206,"smiles":20207,"totalMentions":8,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"aliases":20208,"researchAreas":20216,"evidence":20222,"keyStudies":20227,"limitations":20232,"pharmacology":20233,"faqs":20234,"lastReviewed":359},"Gonadorelin","gonadorelin","Gonadorelin is a synthetic decapeptide identical in structure to endogenous gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH/LHRH) produced by the hypothalamus. It stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to release luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), the gonadotropins that control reproductive function. FDA-approved applications include diagnostic testing of pituitary gonadotroph function and treatment of hypogonadotropic hypogonadism when administered in pulsatile fashion. Unlike long-acting GnRH agonists that cause receptor downregulation and suppression, pulsatile gonadorelin maintains physiological gonadotropin secretion patterns. Research supports its use in fertility induction for both men and women with hypothalamic amenorrhea or hypogonadotropic conditions. The peptide is also used in veterinary medicine to induce ovulation. Gonadorelin has a very short half-life requiring frequent administration or specialized pulsatile pump delivery for therapeutic use. In research and clinical settings, it may help restore endogenous testosterone production by stimulating the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis naturally.","Synthetic GnRH for gonadotropin stimulation and fertility",[20025,20027,20029,20031,20033,20035],{"id":3043,"benefit":20026,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Fertility support",{"id":5474,"benefit":20028,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Testosterone stimulation",{"id":5479,"benefit":20030,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"LH/FSH release",{"id":5482,"benefit":20032,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Reproductive health",{"id":9592,"benefit":20034,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Hypogonadism treatment",{"id":9595,"benefit":12455,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},[20037,20038,20039,20040,20041,20042],{"id":3043,"benefit":20026,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":5474,"benefit":20028,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":5479,"benefit":20030,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":5482,"benefit":20032,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":9592,"benefit":20034,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":9595,"benefit":12455,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},[20044,20046,20049,20053,20054,20055,20056],{"id":3886,"sideEffect":398,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":5476,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":20045,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":20020,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":6345,"management":6346,"doseDependent":15,"needsReview":15},"rxlist.com/factrel-drug.htm",{"id":3892,"sideEffect":398,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":5476,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":20047,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":20020,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":6343,"management":20048,"doseDependent":15,"needsReview":15},"mayoclinic.org","Reassurance; self-limiting",{"id":3896,"sideEffect":7466,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":20050,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":18962,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":20020,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":20051,"management":20052,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},"Rare (more with repeat dosing)","Minutes","Discontinue; epinephrine",{"id":3360,"sideEffect":112,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":3372,"sideEffect":1900,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":3366,"sideEffect":1272,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":3343,"sideEffect":1280,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},[20058,20059,20060,20061,20062,20063,20064],{"id":3886,"sideEffect":398,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":5476,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":20045,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":20020,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":6345,"management":6346,"doseDependent":15,"needsReview":15},{"id":3892,"sideEffect":398,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":5476,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":20047,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":20020,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":6343,"management":20048,"doseDependent":15,"needsReview":15},{"id":3896,"sideEffect":7466,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":20050,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":18962,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":20020,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":20051,"management":20052,"doseDependent":28,"needsReview":15},{"id":3360,"sideEffect":112,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":3372,"sideEffect":1900,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":3366,"sideEffect":1272,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":3343,"sideEffect":1280,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"100mcg 2-3x weekly","GnRH analog for testosterone and fertility support","FDA approved for diagnostic and therapeutic use. Medical supervision required.","Not WADA banned - FDA-approved hormone therapy safe for competitive athletes under medical supervision","Decapeptide, synthetic GnRH analog",[20071,20075,20077,20081,20085,20090,20096,20101,20107,20111,20116,20121,20125,20129,20134,20139,20144,20148,20153,20159,20164,20170,20176,20181,20186,20191],{"id":9546,"title":20072,"authors":155,"journal":7022,"year":157,"citationType":1024,"doi":20073,"researchPaperId":20074},"Gonadorelin in Hypogonadism: Pulsatile Administration","10.1007/s12020-025-04298-x","pubmed_41328046",{"id":8632,"title":20076,"authors":6526,"journal":8251,"year":774,"citationType":167},"Gonadorelin--synthetic LH-RH.",{"id":8635,"title":20078,"authors":20079,"journal":6419,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":20080},"Advances and perspectives in the analytical technology for small peptide hormones analysis: A glimpse to gonadorelin.","Torrini F, Scarano S, Palladino P, Minunni M","10.1016/j.jpba.2023.115312",{"id":8638,"title":20082,"authors":20083,"journal":20084,"year":5198,"citationType":167},"Gonadorelin and erythropoiesis.","Hashimoto T, Miyai K","Archives of internal medicine",{"id":20086,"title":20087,"authors":20088,"journal":20089,"year":243,"citationType":167},726,"[Gonadorelin antagonists: present and future ].","Bouchard P","La Revue du praticien",{"id":20091,"title":20092,"authors":20093,"journal":20094,"year":836,"citationType":167,"doi":20095},727,"GnRH antagonists.","Devroey P","Fertility and sterility","10.1016/s0015-0282(99)00448-3",{"id":20097,"title":20098,"authors":20099,"journal":20100,"year":1152,"citationType":167},728,"[Micropump infusion of gonadorelin in the treatment of hypogonadotropic hypogonadism in patients with pituitary stalk interruption syndrome: cases analysis and literature review].","Shao WM, Bai WJ, Chen YM, Liu L, Wang YJ","Beijing da xue xue bao. Yi xue ban = Journal of Peking University. Health sciences",{"id":20102,"title":20103,"authors":20104,"journal":20105,"year":1152,"citationType":167,"doi":20106},729,"Raloxifene and antiestrogenic gonadorelin inhibits intestinal tumorigenesis by modulating immune cells and decreasing stem-like cells.","Janakiram NB, Mohammed A, Brewer M, Bryant T, Biddick L, Lightfoot S, Pathuri G, Gali H, Rao CV","Cancer prevention research (Philadelphia, Pa.)","10.1158/1940-6207.CAPR-13-0345",{"id":6270,"title":20108,"authors":20109,"journal":12621,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":20110},"The Pulsatile Gonadorelin Pump Induces Earlier Spermatogenesis Than Cyclical Gonadotropin Therapy in Congenital Hypogonadotropic Hypogonadism Men.","Zhang L, Cai K, Wang Y, Ji W, Cheng Z, Chen G, Liao Z","10.1177/1557988318818280",{"id":6273,"title":20112,"authors":20113,"journal":20114,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":20115},"Effect of gonadorelin, lecirelin, and buserelin on LH surge, ovulation, and progesterone in cattle.","Picard-Hagen N, Lhermie G, Florentin S, Merle D, Frein P, Gayrard V","Theriogenology","10.1016/j.theriogenology.2015.03.004",{"id":6276,"title":20117,"authors":20118,"journal":20119,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":20120},"Disappearance of signs of heat and induction of ovulation in oestrous queens with gonadorelin: a clinical study.","Ferré-Dolcet L, Frumento P, Abramo F, Romagnoli S","Journal of feline medicine and surgery","10.1177/1098612X20951284",{"id":6279,"title":20122,"authors":20123,"journal":10577,"year":1516,"citationType":167,"doi":20124},"Anaphylaxis to gonadorelin acetate in a girl with central precocious puberty.","Akın O, Yavuz ST, Hacıhamdioğlu B, Sarı E, Gürsel O, Yeşilkaya E","10.1515/jpem-2015-0183",{"id":6282,"title":20126,"authors":20127,"journal":20128,"year":836,"citationType":167},"[Research progress in immune regulation of gonadorelin].","Jin XH, Huang WQ","Sheng li ke xue jin zhan [Progress in physiology]",{"id":20130,"title":20131,"authors":20132,"journal":4161,"year":750,"citationType":167,"doi":20133},735,"Degradation kinetics of gonadorelin in aqueous solution.","Hoitink MA, Beijnen JH, Bult A, van der Houwen OA, Nijholt J, Underberg WJ","10.1021/js9601187",{"id":20135,"title":20136,"authors":20137,"journal":7607,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":20138},736,"A biomimetic enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (BELISA) for the analysis of gonadorelin by using molecularly imprinted polymer-coated microplates.","Torrini F, Caponi L, Bertolini A, Palladino P, Cipolli F, Saba A, Paolicchi A, Scarano S, Minunni M","10.1007/s00216-021-03867-7",{"id":20140,"title":20141,"authors":20142,"journal":11910,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":20143},737,"Gonadorelin increases semen production and does not affect its quality in Leporinus obtusidens.","Bernardes Júnior JJ, Bombardelli RA, Nuñer APO","10.1016/j.anireprosci.2017.08.015",{"id":20145,"title":20146,"authors":20147,"journal":20128,"year":1403,"citationType":167},738,"[Effects of neuropeptides and neurotransmitters on the regulation of gonadorelin neurons endings in hypothalamic median eminence].","Zhao W, Zhao BG, Luo LG, Li ZY",{"id":20149,"title":20150,"authors":20151,"journal":10652,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":20152},739,"Reproductive performance of goats treated with free gonadorelin or nanoconjugated gonadorelin at estrus.","Hashem NM, Sallam SM","10.1016/j.domaniend.2019.106390",{"id":20154,"title":20155,"authors":20156,"journal":20157,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":20158},740,"Effect of 200 µg of gonadorelin at the first gonadotropin-releasing hormone of the Resynch-25 on ovarian dynamics and fertility in lactating Holstein cows.","Leão IMR, El Azzi MS, Anta-Galván E, Valdés-Arciniega T, Martins JPN","Journal of dairy science","10.3168/jds.2023-23938",{"id":20160,"title":20161,"authors":20162,"journal":20157,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":20163},741,"Effect of using 200 μg of gonadorelin at the first gonadotropin-releasing hormone of the breeding-Ovsynch on ovulatory response and pregnancies per artificial insemination in first-service lactating Holstein cows.","Valdés-Arciniega TJ, Leão IMR, Anta-Galván E, Cunha TO, El Azzi MS, Cook NB, Martins JPN","10.3168/jds.2023-23416",{"id":20165,"title":20166,"authors":20167,"journal":20168,"year":249,"citationType":167,"doi":20169},742,"[Simplified gonadorelin stimulation test in diagnosis of precocious puberty].","Jiang YJ, Liang L, Zhouliang ZC, Fu JF, Li Y, Hong F, Dong GP","Zhejiang da xue xue bao. Yi xue ban = Journal of Zhejiang University. Medical sciences","10.3785/j.issn.1008-9292.2004.05.017",{"id":20171,"title":20172,"authors":20173,"journal":20174,"year":736,"citationType":167,"doi":20175},743,"Gonadorelin-induced testosterone release: a biological assay for quality assurance of gonadorelin in veterinary medicine.","Kesler DJ, Summers RN, Peterson CA, Steckler TL","Drug development and industrial pharmacy","10.1081/ddc-100102176",{"id":20177,"title":20178,"authors":20179,"journal":20180,"year":1403,"citationType":167},744,"GnRH agonists: gonadorelin, leuprolide and nafarelin.","Pace JN, Miller JL, Rose LI","American family physician",{"id":20182,"title":20183,"authors":20184,"journal":20157,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":20185},745,"Effect of 200 μg of gonadorelin hydrochloride at the first GnRH of a CO-Synch program on ovulation rate and pregnancies per artificial insemination in Holstein heifers.","Melo DB, Coelho WM Jr, Marques TC, Salman S, Macedo IM, Castro T, Menezes MCG, Monteiro HF, Cotterman RF, Conley AJ, Lima FS","10.3168/jds.2023-24246",{"id":20187,"title":20188,"authors":20189,"journal":11081,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":20190},746,"Effects of gonadorelin on gonadotropin expression, plasma sex steroid concentrations and ovarian follicle dynamics in mature tambaqui (Colossoma macropomum).","Oliveira RGS, de Morais IS, Paixão RV, Bandeira IC, Duncan WLP, O'Sullivan FLA","10.1016/j.cbpb.2025.111126",{"id":20192,"title":20193,"authors":20194,"journal":3927,"year":849,"citationType":167,"doi":20195},747,"Stability of gonadorelin and triptorelin in aqueous solution.","Helm VJ, Müller BW","10.1023/a:1015981704133",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":8,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":20198},"2026-01-05T22:12:05.936333","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/gonadorelin.avif","1182.29","C55H75N17O13","DB00035","638793","pGlu-His-Trp-Ser-Tyr-Gly-Leu-Arg-Pro-Gly-NH2","2-10 minutes","33515-09-2","CC(C)C[C@@H](C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCN=C(N)N)C(=O)N1CCC[C@H]1C(=O)NCC(=O)N)NC(=O)CNC(=O)[C@H](CC2=CC=C(C=C2)O)NC(=O)[C@H](CO)NC(=O)[C@H](CC3=CNC4=CC=CC=C43)NC(=O)[C@H](CC5=CN=CN5)NC(=O)[C@@H]6CCC(=O)N6",[20209,20210,20211,20212,20213,20214,20215],"GnRH","LHRH","Gonadotropin-releasing hormone","Gonadorelin hydrochloride","Gonadorelin acetate","Factrel","Lutrepulse",[20217,20218,20219,20220,20221],"Hypogonadotropic hypogonadism","Fertility / ovulation induction","Pituitary function testing","Delayed puberty","Assisted reproduction",{"human":20223,"animal":20224,"inVitro":20225,"uncertain":20226},"Gonadorelin is FDA approved for diagnostic testing of hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal function and, given by pulsatile pump, for induction of ovulation/menstruation in primary hypothalamic amenorrhea and treatment of hypogonadotropic hypogonadism. It is standard clinical practice, supported by decades of use, though the branded pulsatile delivery products have been discontinued in the US.","GnRH decapeptide physiology and pulsatile-release requirements are established from extensive animal models of the reproductive axis.","Gonadorelin acts at pituitary gonadotroph GnRH receptors to stimulate LH and FSH release; receptor downregulation with continuous exposure is well documented in cell and receptor studies.","Claims that gonadorelin injections 'restart' natural testosterone production in healthy men on TRT are not supported by robust clinical trials; the peptide's extremely short half-life limits any practical pulsatile dosing outside approved pump systems.",[20228],{"finding":20229,"source":20230,"year":1372,"link":20231,"evidenceLevel":46},"Gonadorelin (as Factrel/Lutrepulse) is FDA approved for evaluating pituitary gonadotroph function and for pulsatile treatment of primary hypothalamic amenorrhea / hypogonadotropic hypogonadism, establishing its efficacy and safety in these indications.","FDA-approved indications (drug labeling)","https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/Scripts/Cder/Daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=019687","Although FDA approved, the pulsatile delivery system (Lutrepulse) is no longer marketed in the US, so contemporary use relies on compounding or off-label injections with no clinical evidence for testosterone restoration in normal men. Continuous (non-pulsatile) administration paradoxically suppresses gonadotropins.","Gonadorelin is a synthetic decapeptide identical to endogenous GnRH. Its half-life is very short (minutes), which is why therapeutic pulsatile regimens require frequent dosing or a pump (historically ~5 mcg SC every 90 minutes via Lutrepulse). It acts on pituitary GnRH receptors to release LH and FSH; continuous exposure causes receptor desensitization and suppression.",[20235,20238,20241],{"question":20236,"answer":20237},"What is gonadorelin FDA approved for?","Diagnostic testing of hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal function and, when delivered pulsatile, treatment of primary hypothalamic amenorrhea and hypogonadotropic hypogonadism.",{"question":20239,"answer":20240},"Why is gonadorelin given pulsatile?","Its half-life is minutes long, and physiological LH/FSH release depends on pulsatile GnRH stimulation; continuous exposure downregulates pituitary receptors and suppresses gonadotropins.",{"question":20242,"answer":20243},"Can gonadorelin restore testosterone in healthy men?","There is no robust clinical trial evidence supporting gonadorelin injections for restoring testosterone in healthy men; its approved uses are diagnostic testing and pulsatile therapy for specific hypogonadal/amenorrhea conditions.",{"id":3760,"name":20245,"slug":20246,"description":20247,"fdaApproved":28,"wadaBanned":28,"views":861,"shortDescription":20248,"researchStatus":12455,"peptideBenefits":20249,"benefits":20260,"peptideSideEffects":20267,"sideEffects":20279,"dosage":20285,"mechanism":20286,"safetyNote":20287,"athleteWarning":20288,"chemicalMakeup":20289,"citations":20290,"research":20523,"statsCache":20524,"imageUrl":20526,"molecularWeight":20527,"molecularFormula":20528,"drugbankId":20529,"pubchemId":20530,"sequence":20531,"halfLife":20532,"administrationRoute":302,"casNumber":20533,"smiles":20534,"totalMentions":532,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"protocols":20535,"aliases":20559,"researchAreas":20566,"evidence":20571,"keyStudies":20574,"limitations":20586,"pharmacology":20587,"faqs":20588,"lastReviewed":359},"HCG (Human Chorionic Gonadotropin)","hcg","HCG (Human Chorionic Gonadotropin) is a glycoprotein hormone naturally produced during pregnancy that shares structural similarity with luteinizing hormone (LH) and binds to the same receptor. FDA-approved indications include treatment of female infertility (to induce ovulation), male hypogonadism, and cryptorchidism. HCG stimulates Leydig cells in the testes to produce testosterone, making it useful for maintaining testicular function during testosterone replacement therapy or after anabolic steroid cycles. In fertility medicine, HCG triggers final oocyte maturation and ovulation in assisted reproductive technologies. The hormone is administered via intramuscular or subcutaneous injection with various protocols depending on the indication. Research supports its use in maintaining intratesticular testosterone and spermatogenesis when exogenous androgens would otherwise suppress the HPG axis. HCG has also been used off-label for weight loss in combination with very-low-calorie diets, though evidence for this application is controversial and not supported by clinical trials. Side effects may include gynecomastia, fluid retention, and headache.","Human chorionic gonadotropin for fertility and testosterone optimization",[20250,20252,20254,20256,20257,20259],{"id":9599,"benefit":20251,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Testosterone production",{"id":593,"benefit":20253,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Fertility preservation",{"id":12775,"benefit":20255,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Testicular function",{"id":12779,"benefit":20034,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3724,"benefit":20258,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"PCT support",{"id":3728,"benefit":12455,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},[20261,20262,20263,20264,20265,20266],{"id":9599,"benefit":20251,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":593,"benefit":20253,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":12775,"benefit":20255,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":12779,"benefit":20034,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3724,"benefit":20258,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":3728,"benefit":12455,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},[20268,20273,20275,20276,20278],{"id":3844,"sideEffect":20269,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":20270,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":20271,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":6343,"management":20272,"doseDependent":15,"needsReview":15},"\"\"","drugs.com/pro/pregnyl.html","HCG","Epinephrine; emergency care",{"id":3383,"sideEffect":20274,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Mood changes",{"id":3394,"sideEffect":1280,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":3378,"sideEffect":20277,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Gynecomastia risk",{"id":3389,"sideEffect":1900,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},[20280,20281,20282,20283,20284],{"id":3844,"sideEffect":20269,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":23,"sourceType":23,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":20270,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":20271,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":6343,"management":20272,"doseDependent":15,"needsReview":15},{"id":3383,"sideEffect":20274,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":3394,"sideEffect":1280,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":3378,"sideEffect":20277,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":3389,"sideEffect":1900,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"250-500IU 2-3x weekly","Stimulates testosterone production and fertility","FDA approved for fertility and hypogonadism. Established safety profile with medical supervision.","WADA BANNED - Prohibited in competitive sports except by approved TUE","Glycoprotein hormone, 237 amino acids (alpha and beta subunits)",[20291,20294,20299,20305,20309,20314,20318,20323,20327,20331,20336,20341,20346,20351,20357,20361,20367,20373,20378,20383,20389,20393,20398,20403,20408,20412,20418,20422,20426,20431,20435,20439,20443,20448,20453,20457,20461,20463,20467,20473,20478,20483,20488,20493,20499,20505,20511,20517],{"id":9522,"title":20292,"authors":20293,"journal":6753,"year":243,"citationType":167},"[Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) and subunits].","Morita H, Maruo T",{"id":20295,"title":20296,"authors":20297,"journal":516,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":20298},786,"Human Chorionic Gonadotropin as a Pivotal Endocrine Immune Regulator Initiating and Preserving Fetal Tolerance.","Schumacher A","10.3390/ijms18102166",{"id":20300,"title":20301,"authors":20302,"journal":20303,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":20304},748,"hCG - related molecules and their measurement.","Szczerba A, Białas P, Pięta PP, Jankowska A","Ginekologia polska","10.17772/gp/60981",{"id":15977,"title":20306,"authors":20307,"journal":17263,"year":290,"citationType":167,"doi":20308},"Hyperglycosylated hCG.","Cole LA","10.1016/j.placenta.2007.01.011",{"id":15980,"title":20310,"authors":20311,"journal":20312,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":20313},"Hyperglycosylated hCG: a Unique Human Implantation and Invasion Factor.","Evans J","American journal of reproductive immunology (New York, N.Y. : 1989)","10.1111/aji.12459",{"id":15983,"title":20315,"authors":20307,"journal":20316,"year":1196,"citationType":167,"doi":20317},"hCG, the wonder of today's science.","Reproductive biology and endocrinology : RB&E","10.1186/1477-7827-10-24",{"id":16186,"title":20319,"authors":20320,"journal":20321,"year":290,"citationType":167,"doi":20322},"Elevated HCG outside of pregnancy--diagnostic considerations and laboratory evaluation.","Olsen TG, Barnes AA, King JA","Obstetrical & gynecological survey","10.1097/01.ogx.0000281556.13788.61",{"id":16189,"title":20324,"authors":20325,"journal":20326,"year":498,"citationType":167},"[Influence of hCG glycosylation on its functions in female reproduction].","Oborná I, Fingerová H","Ceska gynekologie",{"id":16192,"title":20328,"authors":20329,"journal":12282,"year":1122,"citationType":167,"doi":20330},"Total hCG tests.","Cole LA, DuToit S, Higgins TN","10.1016/j.cca.2011.08.006",{"id":16195,"title":20332,"authors":20333,"journal":20334,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":20335},"A rational diagnostic approach to the \"phantom hCG\" and other clinical scenarios in which a patient is thought to be pregnant but is not.","Oyatogun O, Sandhu M, Barata-Kirby S, Tuller E, Schust DJ","Therapeutic advances in reproductive health","10.1177/26334941211016412",{"id":20337,"title":20338,"authors":20339,"journal":5625,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":20340},756,"Hyperglycosylated hCG activates LH/hCG-receptor with lower activity than hCG.","Koistinen H, Koel M, Peters M, Rinken A, Lundin K, Tuuri T, Tapanainen JS, Alfthan H, Salumets A, Stenman UH, Lavogina D","10.1016/j.mce.2018.09.006",{"id":20342,"title":20343,"authors":20307,"journal":20344,"year":1196,"citationType":167,"doi":20345},757,"Familial HCG syndrome.","Journal of reproductive immunology","10.1016/j.jri.2011.11.001",{"id":20347,"title":20348,"authors":20349,"journal":20350,"year":166,"citationType":167},758,"Detection of hCG in trophoblastic disease. The USA hCG reference service experience.","Cole LA, Butler S","The Journal of reproductive medicine",{"id":20352,"title":20353,"authors":20354,"journal":20355,"year":1105,"citationType":167,"doi":20356},759,"Recurrent miscarriage and hCG supplementation: a review and metaanalysis.","Carp HJ","Gynecological endocrinology : the official journal of the International Society of Gynecological Endocrinology","10.3109/09513590.2010.488779",{"id":20358,"title":20359,"authors":20307,"journal":20316,"year":1105,"citationType":167,"doi":20360},760,"Biological functions of hCG and hCG-related molecules.","10.1186/1477-7827-8-102",{"id":20362,"title":20363,"authors":20364,"journal":20365,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":20366},761,"Pituitary as a Source of HCG: Residual Levels After Bilateral Testicular Tumor Removal.","Santen R, Hasan F, Thoren K, Farooki A","Journal of investigative medicine high impact case reports","10.1177/2324709619841414",{"id":20368,"title":20369,"authors":20370,"journal":20371,"year":260,"citationType":167,"doi":20372},762,"[Persistent low hCG levels beyond pregnancy: report of two cases and review of the literature].","De Backer B, Goffin F, Nisolle M, Minon JM","Annales de biologie clinique","10.1684/abc.2013.0876",{"id":20374,"title":20375,"authors":20376,"journal":6556,"year":3074,"citationType":167,"doi":20377},763,"The classification, functions and clinical use of different isoforms of HCG.","Stenman UH, Tiitinen A, Alfthan H, Valmu L","10.1093/humupd/dml029",{"id":20379,"title":20380,"authors":20381,"journal":5625,"year":290,"citationType":167,"doi":20382},764,"Hyperglycosylated hCG: a variant with separate biological functions to regular hCG.","Cole LA, Khanlian SA","10.1016/j.mce.2006.03.047",{"id":20384,"title":20385,"authors":20386,"journal":20387,"year":203,"citationType":167,"doi":20388},765,"On the role of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) in the embryo-endometrial microenvironment: implications for differentiation and implantation.","Licht P, Russu V, Wildt L","Seminars in reproductive medicine","10.1055/s-2001-13909",{"id":20390,"title":20391,"authors":20392,"journal":20350,"year":249,"citationType":167},766,"What we know about low-level hCG: definition, classification and management.","Kohorn EI",{"id":20394,"title":20395,"authors":20396,"journal":20397,"year":1396,"citationType":167},767,"Clinical use of HCG and hCG beta determinations.","Mann K, Saller B, Hoermann R","Scandinavian journal of clinical and laboratory investigation. Supplementum",{"id":20399,"title":20400,"authors":20401,"journal":5671,"year":710,"citationType":167,"doi":20402},768,"The suitability of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)-based birth-control vaccines.","Dirnhofer S, Wick G, Berger P","10.1016/0167-5699(94)90191-0",{"id":20404,"title":20405,"authors":20406,"journal":11641,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":20407},769,"Persistently elevated serum concentrations of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG).","Collazo Abal C, Fernández Marcos MC, Casado Rey P, Vázquez Caamaño MP, Alfthan H, Koistinen H, Stenman UH","10.1515/cclm-2023-0486",{"id":20409,"title":20410,"authors":20411,"journal":19601,"year":1403,"citationType":167},770,"The role of hCG in regulation of the thyroid gland in normal and abnormal pregnancy.","Kennedy RL, Darne J",{"id":20413,"title":20414,"authors":20415,"journal":20416,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":20417},771,"Early detection of pregnancy after IVF and embryo transfer with hyperglycosylated HCG versus Elecsys HCG+β assay.","Bosch E, Hund M, van der Does R, Caracena L, Ahlers S, Labarta E","Reproductive biomedicine online","10.1016/j.rbmo.2021.10.007",{"id":611,"title":20419,"authors":20420,"journal":20387,"year":203,"citationType":167,"doi":20421},"Use of the rat model to study hCG/LH effects on uterine blood flow.","Rao CV, Alsip NL","10.1055/s-2001-13914",{"id":613,"title":20423,"authors":20424,"journal":516,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":20425},"Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG)-An Endocrine, Regulator of Gestation and Cancer.","Heidegger H, Jeschke U","10.3390/ijms19051502",{"id":615,"title":20427,"authors":20428,"journal":20429,"year":166,"citationType":167,"doi":20430},"Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), the hormone of life and death: a review.","Acevedo HF","Journal of experimental therapeutics & oncology","10.1046/j.1359-4117.2002.01031.x",{"id":617,"title":20432,"authors":20433,"journal":516,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":20434},"Human Chorionic Gonadotropin and Breast Cancer.","Schüler-Toprak S, Treeck O, Ortmann O","10.3390/ijms18071587",{"id":11818,"title":20436,"authors":20437,"journal":2723,"year":2907,"citationType":167,"doi":20438},"Immunology of human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG).","Lunenfeld B, Eshkol A","10.1016/s0083-6729(08)60036-9",{"id":11820,"title":20440,"authors":20441,"journal":13579,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":20442},"Advances in human chorionic gonadotropin detection technologies: a review.","Fan J, Wang M, Wang C, Cao Y","10.4155/bio-2017-0072",{"id":11822,"title":20444,"authors":20445,"journal":20446,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":20447},"Detection of human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) in fabric urine stains older than five years.","Minamiyama T, Kawamoto M, Matsunari R, Ting D, Ikegaya H","Journal of forensic sciences","10.1111/1556-4029.15274",{"id":11824,"title":20449,"authors":20450,"journal":20451,"year":243,"citationType":167,"doi":20452},"Secretion of human chorionic gonadotropin in early pregnancy.","Yoshida Y","Medical molecular morphology","10.1007/s00795-004-0258-z",{"id":4059,"title":20454,"authors":20455,"journal":1469,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":20456},"Human Chorionic Gonadotropin-Mediated Immune Responses That Facilitate Embryo Implantation and Placentation.","Schumacher A, Zenclussen AC","10.3389/fimmu.2019.02896",{"id":4061,"title":20458,"authors":20459,"journal":14187,"year":260,"citationType":167,"doi":20460},"Determination of human chorionic gonadotropin.","Stenman UH, Alfthan H","10.1016/j.beem.2013.10.005",{"id":4063,"title":20462,"authors":6526,"journal":8251,"year":2907,"citationType":167},"Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG).",{"id":4065,"title":20464,"authors":20465,"journal":1469,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":20466},"Human Chorionic Gonadotropin and Related Peptides: Candidate Anti-Inflammatory Therapy in Early Stages of Sepsis.","Yoo SK, Mehdi SF, Pusapati S, Mathur N, Anipindi M, Lunenfeld B, Lowell B, Yang H, Metz CN, Khan SA, Leroith D, Roth J","10.3389/fimmu.2021.714177",{"id":20468,"title":20469,"authors":20470,"journal":20471,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":20472},784,"Hyperglycosylated human chorionic gonadotropin as a predictor of ongoing pregnancy.","Brady PC, Farland LV, Racowsky C, Ginsburg ES","American journal of obstetrics and gynecology","10.1016/j.ajog.2019.08.004",{"id":20474,"title":20475,"authors":20476,"journal":5625,"year":1152,"citationType":167,"doi":20477},785,"Luteinizing hormone and human chorionic gonadotropin: origins of difference.","Choi J, Smitz J","10.1016/j.mce.2013.12.009",{"id":20479,"title":20480,"authors":20481,"journal":12282,"year":1122,"citationType":167,"doi":20482},788,"Human chorionic gonadotropin in pregnancy diagnostics.","Montagnana M, Trenti T, Aloe R, Cervellin G, Lippi G","10.1016/j.cca.2011.05.025",{"id":20484,"title":20485,"authors":20307,"journal":20486,"year":1384,"citationType":167,"doi":20487},789,"Human chorionic gonadotropin and associated molecules.","Expert review of molecular diagnostics","10.1586/14737159.9.1.51",{"id":20489,"title":20490,"authors":20491,"journal":10631,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":20492},790,"Beta-human chorionic gonadotropin-producing neuroblastoma: an unrecognized cause of gonadotropin-independent precocious puberty.","Maeyama T, Ichikawa C, Okada Y, Sawada A, Inoue M, Takeuchi M, Soh H, Usui N, Etani Y, Kawai M","10.1507/endocrj.EJ21-0366",{"id":20494,"title":20495,"authors":20496,"journal":20497,"year":229,"citationType":167,"doi":20498},791,"Human chorionic villous macrophages as a fetal biological shield from maternal chorionic gonadotropin.","Katabuchi H, Ohba T","Development, growth & differentiation","10.1111/j.1440-169X.2008.01030.x",{"id":20500,"title":20501,"authors":20502,"journal":20503,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":20504},792,"Supposed pituitary-production of human chorionic Gonadotropin induced by androgen deprivation therapy.","Yoshimura K, Nakashima Y, Sugiyama K, Kohei N, Takizawa A","International braz j urol : official journal of the Brazilian Society of Urology","10.1590/S1677-5538.IBJU.2017.0654",{"id":20506,"title":20507,"authors":20508,"journal":20509,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":20510},793,"Why Is It So Hard to Report Quantitative Human Chorionic Gonadotropin Results?","Gronowski AM","The journal of applied laboratory medicine","10.1093/jalm/jfaa095",{"id":20512,"title":20513,"authors":20514,"journal":20515,"year":920,"citationType":167,"doi":20516},794,"Search for peptide immunogens of the beta-subunit of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) capable of eliciting hormone specific and neutralizing antisera. Identification of an undecapeptide eliciting hCG-specific antisera.","Iyer KS, Upadhye S, Kadam LR, Mahale SD, Dhanasekharan S, Natraj U, Nandedkar TD","International journal of peptide and protein research","10.1111/j.1399-3011.1992.tb00783.x",{"id":20518,"title":20519,"authors":20520,"journal":20521,"year":2425,"citationType":167,"doi":20522},795,"Controversies in plastic surgery: suction-assisted lipectomy (SAL) and the hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin) protocol for obesity treatment.","Vogt T, Belluscio D","Aesthetic plastic surgery","10.1007/BF01575502",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":532,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":20525},"2026-01-05T22:12:17.855235","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/hcg.webp","25700.00","C11H19N3O6S","DB00093","4369448","MEMFQGLLLLLLLSMGGTWASKEPLRPRCRPINATLAVEKEGCPVCITVNTTICAGYCPTMTRVLQGVLPALPQVVCNYRDVRFESIRLPGCPRGVNPVVSYAVALSCQCALCRRSTTDCGGPKDHPLTCDDPRFQDSSSSKAPPPSLPSPSRLPGPSDTPILPQ","24-36 hours","9002-61-3","C(C[C@@H](C(=O)O)N)CC(=O)N[C@@H](CS)C(=O)NCC(=O)O",[20536,20539,20542,20545,20547,20551,20555],{"name":20537,"dose":20538,"frequency":16131,"route":1595},"TRT Adjunct (Low Dose)","250-500 IU",{"name":20540,"dose":20541,"frequency":4956,"route":1595},"TRT Adjunct (Standard)","500-1000 IU",{"name":20543,"dose":20544,"frequency":14912,"route":1590},"HCG Monotherapy (Hypogonadism)","1500-2000 IU",{"name":20546,"dose":20544,"frequency":14912,"route":1590},"Fertility Protocol (with FSH)",{"name":20548,"dose":20549,"frequency":20550,"route":1590},"Cryptorchidism (Pediatric)","1000-5000 IU (age-dependent)","2-3 times weekly x 3-4 weeks",{"name":20552,"dose":20553,"frequency":20554,"route":895},"Ovulation Trigger (Female)","5000-10,000 IU single dose","Once (timed with follicle maturity)",{"name":20556,"dose":20557,"frequency":20558,"route":1595},"PCT Protocol","1000-1500 IU","Every other day x 2-3 weeks",[20560,20561,20562,20563,20564,20565],"Human Chorionic Gonadotropin","Chorionic Gonadotropin","hCG","Pregnyl","Novarel","Ovidrel (recombinant)",[20567,20568,20569,20570],"Male hypogonadism / testosterone","Female infertility and ART","Spermatogenesis induction","Weight loss (controversial off-label)",{"human":20572,"animal":23,"inVitro":23,"uncertain":20573},"hCG is FDA-approved (e.g., Novarel, 1974) for inducing ovulation in infertility, treating prepubertal cryptorchidism, and hypogonadotropic hypogonadism in males; it is widely used in ART to trigger final oocyte maturation and in men to maintain intratesticular testosterone during testosterone therapy. Long-term follow-up studies show hCG alone can induce spermatogenesis in men with isolated hypogonadotropic hypogonadism.","The 'hCG diet' (hCG plus very-low-calorie diet) for weight loss is not supported by evidence - meta-analyses find no additional benefit over calorie restriction alone, and the FDA has required disclaimers on hCG weight-loss products.",[20575,20579,20583],{"finding":20576,"source":20577,"year":5167,"link":20578,"evidenceLevel":46},"FDA-approved label: hCG is indicated for induction of ovulation/pregnancy in anovulatory infertility, prepubertal cryptorchidism, and hypogonadotropic hypogonadism in males.","FDA-approved labeling (Novarel)","https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2007/017692s018lbl.pdf",{"finding":20580,"source":20581,"year":920,"link":20582,"evidenceLevel":46},"Long-term hCG monotherapy (14-120 months) induced spermatogenesis in men with isolated hypogonadotropic hypogonadism.","Long-term follow-up study (Int J Androl)","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1516981/",{"finding":20584,"source":20585,"year":729,"link":23,"evidenceLevel":46},"A criteria-based meta-analysis of the Simeons 'hCG diet' found no evidence that hCG provides additional weight loss beyond the accompanying very-low-calorie diet.","Meta-analysis (Br J Clin Pharmacol)","Approved uses are narrow (infertility, hypogonadism, cryptorchidism); the weight-loss application is refuted by meta-analyses; misuse in sports is prohibited (WADA); monitoring for side effects such as gynecomastia, fluid retention, and injection-site reactions is needed.","Glycoprotein hormone (alpha + beta subunits) acting as an LH agonist at the LHCG receptor; administered IM/SC. Half-life is ~24-33 hours (terminal, varies by formulation), supporting dosing every 2-3 days in hypogonadism protocols. Stimulates Leydig-cell testosterone production and triggers ovulation/oocyte maturation in ART.",[20589,20592],{"question":20590,"answer":20591},"Does hCG work for weight loss?","No. Meta-analyses show no weight-loss benefit beyond the very-low-calorie diet itself; the FDA has required hCG weight-loss products to carry disclaimers that the claim is unsupported.",{"question":20593,"answer":20594},"Why is hCG used alongside testosterone replacement?","Exogenous testosterone suppresses the HPG axis and intratesticular testosterone; hCG maintains Leydig-cell function and spermatogenesis, helping preserve fertility during TRT.",{"id":8060,"name":20596,"slug":20597,"description":20598,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":15,"views":5369,"shortDescription":20599,"researchStatus":20600,"peptideBenefits":20601,"benefits":20613,"peptideSideEffects":20620,"sideEffects":20625,"dosage":5810,"mechanism":20630,"safetyNote":20631,"athleteWarning":20632,"chemicalMakeup":20633,"citations":20634,"research":20771,"statsCache":20772,"imageUrl":20774,"molecularWeight":20775,"molecularFormula":20776,"pubchemId":20777,"sequence":20778,"halfLife":20779,"administrationRoute":13717,"casNumber":20780,"smiles":20781,"totalMentions":5369,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"protocols":20782,"aliases":20799,"researchAreas":20807,"evidence":20813,"keyStudies":20818,"limitations":20835,"pharmacology":20836,"faqs":20837,"lastReviewed":359},"Kisspeptin","kisspeptin","Kisspeptin is a family of neuropeptides encoded by the KISS1 gene that serve as critical regulators of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis and reproductive function. Acting through the kisspeptin receptor (KISS1R/GPR54), these peptides stimulate gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) neurons to initiate pulsatile GnRH secretion, thereby controlling downstream release of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). Research demonstrates kisspeptin is essential for puberty onset, maintaining fertility, and normal reproductive cycling. Mutations in KISS1 or KISS1R cause hypogonadotropic hypogonadism and failure of puberty. Clinical studies have explored kisspeptin for fertility treatment, showing it can induce ovulation and restore gonadotropin pulsatility. The peptide may offer advantages over GnRH analogs in assisted reproduction with reduced risk of ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome. Research continues into kisspeptin's roles in metabolic regulation, pregnancy maintenance, and cancer metastasis suppression. The kisspeptin system represents a key control point for reproductive neuroendocrinology.","Reproductive peptide regulating gonadotropin release and fertility","Research compound - Reproductive hormone modulator",[20602,20604,20606,20608,20609,20611],{"id":3731,"benefit":20603,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"GnRH stimulation",{"id":11855,"benefit":20605,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Fertility enhancement",{"id":11858,"benefit":20607,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Libido support",{"id":11861,"benefit":20032,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":9990,"benefit":20610,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Testosterone optimization",{"id":9992,"benefit":20612,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Natural hormone regulation",[20614,20615,20616,20617,20618,20619],{"id":3731,"benefit":20603,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":11855,"benefit":20605,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":11858,"benefit":20607,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":11861,"benefit":20032,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":9990,"benefit":20610,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":9992,"benefit":20612,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},[20621,20622,20623,20624],{"id":3399,"sideEffect":2340,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":3410,"sideEffect":112,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":3405,"sideEffect":411,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":3415,"sideEffect":16539,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},[20626,20627,20628,20629],{"id":3399,"sideEffect":2340,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":3410,"sideEffect":112,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":3405,"sideEffect":411,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":3415,"sideEffect":16539,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":23,"onset":23,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Stimulates GnRH release for reproductive function","Research compound with ongoing clinical trials. Shows promise for reproductive health.","Not WADA banned - reproductive hormone modulator not currently prohibited for competitive athletes","54-amino acid peptide (Kisspeptin-54) or shorter fragments",[20635,20639,20645,20650,20655,20660,20665,20670,20676,20682,20687,20692,20697,20702,20708,20713,20718,20724,20729,20733,20738,20744,20749,20754,20759,20765],{"id":9542,"title":20636,"authors":155,"journal":3189,"year":157,"citationType":158,"doi":20637,"researchPaperId":20638},"Kisspeptin in Reproductive Endocrinology: Clinical Applications","10.1210/endocr/bqaf165","pubmed_41206596",{"id":20640,"title":20641,"authors":20642,"journal":20643,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":20644},985,"Novel therapeutic avenues for kisspeptin.","Tsoutsouki J, Abbara A, Dhillo W","Current opinion in pharmacology","10.1016/j.coph.2022.102319",{"id":20646,"title":20647,"authors":20648,"journal":1151,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":20649},975,"The Role of Kisspeptin in the Control of the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Gonadal Axis and Reproduction.","Xie Q, Kang Y, Zhang C, Xie Y, Wang C, Liu J, Yu C, Zhao H, Huang D","10.3389/fendo.2022.925206",{"id":20651,"title":20652,"authors":20653,"journal":19465,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":20654},976,"Metabolic regulation of kisspeptin - the link between energy balance and reproduction.","Navarro VM","10.1038/s41574-020-0363-7",{"id":20656,"title":20657,"authors":20658,"journal":20387,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":20659},977,"Kisspeptin and Glucose Homeostasis.","Izzi-Engbeaya C, Hill TG, Bowe JE","10.1055/s-0039-3400242",{"id":20661,"title":20662,"authors":20663,"journal":1151,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":20664},978,"Kisspeptin in the Prediction of Pregnancy Complications.","Tsoutsouki J, Patel B, Comninos AN, Dhillo WS, Abbara A","10.3389/fendo.2022.942664",{"id":20666,"title":20667,"authors":20668,"journal":20387,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":20669},979,"Kisspeptin as a Behavioral Hormone.","Mills EGA, O'Byrne KT, Comninos AN","10.1055/s-0039-3400239",{"id":20671,"title":20672,"authors":20673,"journal":20674,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":20675},980,"Kisspeptin as a potential biomarker throughout pregnancy.","Hu KL, Zhao H, Yu Y, Li R","European journal of obstetrics, gynecology, and reproductive biology","10.1016/j.ejogrb.2019.07.016",{"id":20677,"title":20678,"authors":20679,"journal":20680,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":20681},981,"Kisspeptin and its Effect on Mammalian Spermatogensis.","Feng T, Bai JH, Xu XL, Liu Y","Current drug metabolism","10.2174/1389200219666180129112406",{"id":20683,"title":20684,"authors":20685,"journal":516,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":20686},982,"Kisspeptin and Testicular Function-Is it Necessary?","Sharma A, Thaventhiran T, Minhas S, Dhillo WS, Jayasena CN","10.3390/ijms21082958",{"id":20688,"title":20689,"authors":20690,"journal":3059,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":20691},983,"Kisspeptin and mammalian reproduction.","Tsukamura H, Ozawa H, Lehman MN","10.1016/j.peptides.2024.171297",{"id":20693,"title":20694,"authors":20695,"journal":4794,"year":260,"citationType":167,"doi":20696},984,"Kisspeptin antagonists.","Roseweir AK, Millar RP","10.1007/978-1-4614-6199-9_8",{"id":20698,"title":20699,"authors":20700,"journal":10766,"year":157,"citationType":167,"doi":20701},986,"Kisspeptin system-physiology and clinical perspectives.","Stoynev N, Kumanov P","10.1016/j.ando.2025.101793",{"id":20703,"title":20704,"authors":20705,"journal":20706,"year":451,"citationType":167,"doi":20707},987,"Kisspeptin Influence on Polycystic Ovary Syndrome-a Mini Review.","Araújo BS, Baracat MCP, Dos Santos Simões R, de Oliveira Nuñes C, Maciel GAR, Lobo RA, Soares-Jr JM, Baracat EC","Reproductive sciences (Thousand Oaks, Calif.)","10.1007/s43032-019-00085-6",{"id":20709,"title":20710,"authors":20711,"journal":20706,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":20712},988,"Hypothalamic Kisspeptin Neurons: Integral Elements of the GnRH System.","Prashar V, Arora T, Singh R, Sharma A, Parkash J","10.1007/s43032-022-01027-5",{"id":20714,"title":20715,"authors":20716,"journal":4778,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":20717},989,"Kisspeptin/GPR54 System: What Do We Know About Its Role in Human Reproduction?","Trevisan CM, Montagna E, de Oliveira R, Christofolini DM, Barbosa CP, Crandall KA, Bianco B","10.1159/000493406",{"id":20719,"title":20720,"authors":20721,"journal":20722,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":20723},990,"Conserved functions of hypothalamic kisspeptin in vertebrates.","Sivalingam M, Ogawa S, Trudeau VL, Parhar IS","General and comparative endocrinology","10.1016/j.ygcen.2021.113973",{"id":20725,"title":20726,"authors":20727,"journal":2041,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":20728},991,"Sexual Dimorphism in Kisspeptin Signaling.","Lee EB, Dilower I, Marsh CA, Wolfe MW, Masumi S, Upadhyaya S, Rumi MAK","10.3390/cells11071146",{"id":20730,"title":20731,"authors":20668,"journal":20387,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":20732},992,"The Roles of the Amygdala Kisspeptin System.","10.1055/s-0039-3400462",{"id":20734,"title":20735,"authors":20736,"journal":3142,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":20737},993,"Kisspeptin and the control of emotions, mood and reproductive behaviour.","Mills EGA, Dhillo WS, Comninos AN","10.1530/JOE-18-0269",{"id":20739,"title":20740,"authors":20741,"journal":20742,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":20743},994,"Review: kisspeptin and reproduction in the pig.","Lents CA","Animal : an international journal of animal bioscience","10.1017/S1751731119001666",{"id":20745,"title":20746,"authors":20747,"journal":20387,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":20748},995,"The Role of Kisspeptin in Sexual Behavior.","Hellier V, Brock O, Bakker J","10.1055/s-0039-3400992",{"id":20750,"title":20751,"authors":20752,"journal":20387,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":20753},996,"Arcuate Kisspeptin Neurons Coordinate Reproductive Activities with Metabolism.","Rønnekleiv OK, Qiu J, Kelly MJ","10.1055/s-0039-3400251",{"id":20755,"title":20756,"authors":20757,"journal":1139,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":20758},997,"Kisspeptin as a therapeutic target in reproduction.","Yang L, Dhillo W","10.1517/14728222.2016.1124858",{"id":20760,"title":20761,"authors":20762,"journal":20763,"year":478,"citationType":167,"doi":20764},998,"The role of kisspeptin in the pathogenesis of a polycystic ovary syndrome.","Aasif A, Alam R, Ahsan H, Khan MM, Khan A, Khan S","Endocrine regulations","10.2478/enr-2023-0032",{"id":20766,"title":20767,"authors":20768,"journal":20769,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":20770},999,"Clinical Potential of Kisspeptin in Reproductive Health.","Abbara A, Clarke SA, Dhillo WS","Trends in molecular medicine","10.1016/j.molmed.2021.05.008",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":5369,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":20773},"2026-01-05T22:12:19.787567","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/kisspeptin.webp","1302.41","C63H83N17O14","25077993","YNWNSFGLRF","4 minutes","374675-21-5","CC[C@H](C)[C@@H](C(=O)N1CCC[C@H]1C(=O)N[C@@H](C)C(=O)N2CCC[C@H]2C(=O)N[C@@H](CCC(=O)N)C(=O)NCC(=O)N[C@@H](C)C(=O)N[C@@H](C(C)C)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(C)C)C(=O)N[C@@H](C(C)C)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCC(=O)N)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCNC(=N)N)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCC(=O)O)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCCN)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(=O)O)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(C)C)C(=O)N3CCC[C@H]3C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(=O)N)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC4=CC=C(C=C4)O)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(=O)N)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC5=CNC6=CC=CC=C65)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(=O)N)C(=O)N[C@@H](CO)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC7=CC=CC=C7)C(=O)NCC(=O)N[C@@H](CC(C)C)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCNC(=N)N)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC8=CC=CC=C8)C(=O)N)NC(=O)[C@H](CCC(=O)N)NC(=O)[C@H](CCCNC(=N)N)NC(=O)[C@H](CO)NC(=O)[C@H](CC9=CN=CN9)NC(=O)[C@@H]1CCCN1C(=O)[C@H](C)NC(=O)[C@H](CO)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(C)C)NC(=O)CNC(=O)[C@@H]1CCCN1C(=O)[C@H](CCC(=O)N)NC(=O)[C@H](CCC(=O)N)NC(=O)[C@H](CCCNC(=N)N)NC(=O)[C@H](CO)NC(=O)CNC(=O)[C@H](CO)NC(=O)[C@H](CO)NC(=O)[C@H](CCC(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@@H]1CCCN1C(=O)[C@@H]1CCCN1C(=O)[C@@H]1CCCN1C(=O)[C@H](CO)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(C)C)NC(=O)[C@H](CO)NC(=O)[C@H]([C@@H](C)O)NC(=O)CN",[20783,20786,20790,20794],{"name":20784,"dose":5810,"frequency":20785,"route":555},"Gonadotropin stimulation","Single dose or 2-3x/week",{"name":20026,"dose":20787,"frequency":20788,"route":20789},"0.4-1.0 nmol/kg (50-150mcg)","As directed by physician","SubQ (KP-54)",{"name":20791,"dose":20792,"frequency":20793,"route":1583},"Sexual function","1 nmol/kg/h","75 min IV infusion (clinical)",{"name":20795,"dose":20796,"frequency":20797,"route":20798},"Research protocols","0.3-10 nmol/kg","Variable by protocol","IV bolus or SubQ",[20800,20801,20802,20803,20804,20805,20806],"Kisspeptin-54","KP-54","Metastin","Kisspeptin-10","KP-10","KISS1 peptide","Kisspeptin-13",[20808,20809,20810,20811,20812],"Fertility / IVF trigger","Ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome prevention","Hypothalamic amenorrhea","Puberty regulation","Reproductive neuroendocrinology",{"human":20814,"animal":20815,"inVitro":20816,"uncertain":20817},"Clinical studies at Imperial College London showed a single subcutaneous kisspeptin-54 injection can trigger oocyte maturation in women undergoing IVF (mature eggs retrieved, fertilization in 92% of patients, clinical pregnancy rate 23%). In a phase 2 randomized trial of 60 women at high risk of OHSS, kisspeptin-54 triggered oocyte maturation in 95% with no moderate/severe/critical OHSS and live-birth rates up to 45-62% per transfer. Twice-weekly kisspeptin-54 for 8 weeks stimulated reproductive hormone release in women with hypothalamic amenorrhea. Intranasal kisspeptin administration was shown (2025) to rapidly stimulate gonadotropin release in humans.","Kisspeptin signaling (KISS1/KISS1R) is established as essential for puberty onset and the GnRH/LH surge driving ovulation; knockout models are infertile and lack pubertal development.","Kisspeptin activates KISS1R (GPR54) on GnRH neurons; mutations in KISS1 or KISS1R cause hypogonadotropic hypogonadism in humans.","Tachyphylaxis limits repeated dosing (twice-daily dosing caused desensitization). Larger phase 3 programs and approval are pending; use for libido enhancement or TRT support is not clinically validated.",[20819,20823,20827,20831],{"finding":20820,"source":20821,"year":1152,"link":20822,"evidenceLevel":46},"A single SC injection of kisspeptin-54 triggered oocyte maturation in 53 women undergoing IVF; fertilization occurred in 92% of patients with biochemical and clinical pregnancy rates of 40% and 23%.","Clinical trial (J Clin Invest)","https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI75730",{"finding":20824,"source":20825,"year":1516,"link":20826,"evidenceLevel":46},"In 60 women at high risk of OHSS during IVF, kisspeptin-54 triggered oocyte maturation in 95%, produced live-birth rates of 45-62% per transfer, and no woman developed moderate, severe, or critical OHSS.","Phase 2 randomized clinical trial (J Clin Endocrinol Metab)","https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2015-2332",{"finding":20828,"source":20829,"year":1105,"link":20830,"evidenceLevel":46},"Twice-weekly kisspeptin-54 for 8 weeks significantly elevated reproductive hormone levels vs saline in women with hypothalamic amenorrhea, with only partial desensitization (versus complete tolerance with twice-daily dosing).","Randomized controlled study (Clin Pharmacol Ther)","https://doi.org/10.1038/clpt.2010.204",{"finding":20832,"source":20833,"year":157,"link":20834,"evidenceLevel":46},"Intranasal kisspeptin rapidly stimulated gonadotropin release in humans, suggesting a non-invasive route for clinical use.","Human physiology study (EBioMedicine)","https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ebiom.2025.105689","All human data come from a single research group's small trials; no approved product exists. Repeated dosing causes tachyphylaxis, and dosing regimens are not standardized. Effects in men and for libido remain speculative.","Kisspeptin is the product of the KISS1 gene; kisspeptin-54 is the major circulating isoform. It activates KISS1R (GPR54) on GnRH neurons, stimulating GnRH and downstream LH/FSH release. In trials, SC kisspeptin-54 was dosed 1.6-12.8 nmol/kg as a single trigger injection; plasma half-life is short (kisspeptin-10 much shorter than kisspeptin-54), and repeated frequent dosing causes receptor desensitization.",[20838,20841,20844,20847],{"question":20839,"answer":20840},"What does kisspeptin do?","It is a neuropeptide that activates KISS1R on GnRH neurons, driving GnRH and LH/FSH secretion — a master regulator of puberty and fertility.",{"question":20842,"answer":20843},"Has kisspeptin been used in IVF?","Yes — in clinical trials, kisspeptin-54 has been used to trigger oocyte maturation in IVF, including in women at high risk of ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome, where it avoided OHSS.",{"question":20845,"answer":20846},"Is kisspeptin approved as a drug?","No. Kisspeptin remains an investigational peptide; no regulatory approval has been granted.",{"question":20848,"answer":20849},"Does repeated kisspeptin stop working?","Frequent dosing (e.g., twice daily) produces tachyphylaxis/desensitization; less frequent regimens such as twice-weekly dosing only partially desensitize.",{"id":3667,"name":20851,"slug":20852,"description":20853,"fdaApproved":28,"wadaBanned":15,"views":7750,"shortDescription":20854,"peptideBenefits":20855,"benefits":20880,"peptideSideEffects":20895,"sideEffects":20922,"dosage":20934,"mechanism":20935,"safetyNote":20936,"athleteWarning":20937,"citations":20938,"research":21075,"statsCache":21076,"imageUrl":21078,"molecularWeight":21079,"molecularFormula":21080,"pubchemId":21081,"sequence":21082,"halfLife":21083,"administrationRoute":21084,"casNumber":21085,"smiles":21086,"totalMentions":5369,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"protocols":21087,"aliases":21106,"researchAreas":21110,"evidence":21116,"keyStudies":21121,"limitations":21132,"pharmacology":21133,"faqs":21134,"lastReviewed":359},"Oxytocin","oxytocin","Oxytocin is a naturally occurring nine-amino acid neuropeptide hormone synthesized in the hypothalamus and released from the posterior pituitary gland. Known as the \"love hormone\" or \"bonding hormone,\" oxytocin plays fundamental roles in social bonding, maternal behavior, sexual reproduction, childbirth, and lactation. The peptide acts centrally to influence social cognition, trust, empathy, and stress responses through receptors widely distributed in the brain's limbic system. Research demonstrates anxiolytic effects and potential therapeutic applications for autism spectrum disorders, social anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder, and depression. Oxytocin reduces activity in the amygdala and promotes prosocial behaviors. Clinically, synthetic oxytocin (Pitocin) is FDA-approved to induce labor and control postpartum bleeding. The peptide can be administered intranasally for potential neuropsychiatric applications, though bioavailability and dosing remain areas of active research. Studies continue exploring oxytocin's complex effects on human social behavior and mental health.","Social bonding hormone for emotional connection and stress relief",[20856,20858,20860,20861,20863,20865,20866,20867,20869,20871,20874,20877,20878,20879],{"id":8422,"benefit":20857,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Social bonding",{"id":5036,"benefit":20859,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Emotional well-being",{"id":5039,"benefit":16177,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},{"id":2347,"benefit":20862,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Trust enhancement",{"id":2350,"benefit":20864,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceRedditPostId":25,"sourceUrl":26,"evidenceLevel":27,"verified":28},"Relationship 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contractions",{"id":9745,"sideEffect":1272,"description":23,"severity":104,"frequency":5476,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":5477,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},{"id":9751,"sideEffect":20919,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":105,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":675,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Uterine hyperstimulation",{"id":9756,"sideEffect":20921,"description":23,"severity":116,"frequency":117,"source":106,"sourceType":106,"sourcePaperId":23,"sourceUrl":26,"userReportsCount":8,"verified":28,"peptideName":23,"evidenceLevel":23,"reversible":28,"onset":675,"management":23,"doseDependent":23,"needsReview":15},"Water 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mIU/min (IV) Infusion/As directed","Hormone that promotes social bonding, trust, and emotional connection","FDA approved for labor induction and postpartum hemorrhage (Pitocin). Medical supervision required. Risk of uterine hyperstimulation, water intoxication.","Not WADA banned - FDA-approved hormone safe for competitive athletes under medical supervision",[20939,20944,20949,20954,20959,20965,20970,20975,20980,20985,20991,20996,21001,21007,21012,21017,21023,21028,21033,21038,21043,21048,21053,21058,21064,21069],{"id":9314,"title":20940,"authors":155,"journal":20941,"year":157,"citationType":15593,"doi":20942,"researchPaperId":20943},"Intranasal Oxytocin: Effects on Social Behavior","Psychoneuroendocrinology","10.1016/j.psyneuen.2025.107189","pubmed_41327084",{"id":20945,"title":20946,"authors":20947,"journal":5546,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":20948},1393,"The interplay of oxytocin and sex hormones.","Quintana DS, Glaser BD, Kang H, Kildal ESM, Audunsdottir K, Sartorius AM, Barth C","10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105765",{"id":20950,"title":20951,"authors":20952,"journal":4412,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":20953},1394,"Oxytocin: An Old Hormone, a Novel Psychotropic Drug and its Possible Use in Treating Psychiatric Disorders.","Marazziti D, Diep PT, Carter S, Carbone MG","10.2174/0929867329666220727120646",{"id":20955,"title":20956,"authors":20957,"journal":5546,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":20958},1395,"Intranasal oxytocin in the treatment of autism spectrum disorders: A multilevel meta-analysis.","Huang Y, Huang X, Ebstein RP, Yu R","10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.12.028",{"id":20960,"title":20961,"authors":20962,"journal":20963,"year":1049,"citationType":167,"doi":20964},1396,"[Oxytocin and postpartum depression].","Cardaillac C, Rua C, Simon EG, El-Hage W","Journal de gynecologie, obstetrique et biologie de la reproduction","10.1016/j.jgyn.2016.05.002",{"id":20966,"title":20967,"authors":20968,"journal":5546,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":20969},1397,"Oxytocin effects in schizophrenia: Reconciling mixed findings and moving forward.","Bradley ER, Woolley JD","10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.05.007",{"id":20971,"title":20972,"authors":20973,"journal":20974,"year":1152,"citationType":167},1398,"[Oxytocin, the hormone that everyone uses and that few know].","López-Ramírez CE, Arámbula-Almanza J, Camarena-Pulido EE","Ginecologia y obstetricia de Mexico",{"id":20976,"title":20977,"authors":20978,"journal":9774,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":20979},1399,"Oxytocin and Eating Disorders: A Narrative Review on Emerging Findings and Perspectives.","Giel K, Zipfel S, Hallschmid M","10.2174/1570159X15666171128143158",{"id":20981,"title":20982,"authors":20983,"journal":20643,"year":229,"citationType":167,"doi":20984},1400,"Oxytocin and the maternal brain.","Leng G, Meddle SL, Douglas AJ","10.1016/j.coph.2008.07.001",{"id":20986,"title":20987,"authors":20988,"journal":20989,"year":498,"citationType":167,"doi":20990},1376,"Oxytocin and social functioning.","Jones C, Barrera I, Brothers S, Ring R, Wahlestedt C","Dialogues in clinical neuroscience","10.31887/DCNS.2017.19.2/cjones",{"id":20992,"title":20993,"authors":20994,"journal":20471,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":20995},1377,"The physiology and pharmacology of oxytocin in labor and in the peripartum period.","Uvnäs-Moberg K","10.1016/j.ajog.2023.04.011",{"id":20997,"title":20998,"authors":20999,"journal":16318,"year":1152,"citationType":167,"doi":21000},1378,"Oxytocin, motivation and the role of dopamine.","Love TM","10.1016/j.pbb.2013.06.011",{"id":21002,"title":21003,"authors":21004,"journal":21005,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":21006},1379,"Oxytocin and the Neurobiology of Prosocial Behavior.","Marsh N, Marsh AA, Lee MR, Hurlemann R","The Neuroscientist : a review journal bringing neurobiology, neurology and psychiatry","10.1177/1073858420960111",{"id":21008,"title":21009,"authors":21010,"journal":728,"year":458,"citationType":167,"doi":21011},1380,"Oxytocin in neurodevelopmental disorders: Autism spectrum disorder and Prader-Willi syndrome.","Josselsohn A, Zhao Y, Espinoza D, Hollander E","10.1016/j.pharmthera.2024.108734",{"id":21013,"title":21014,"authors":21015,"journal":10646,"year":1152,"citationType":167,"doi":21016},1381,"Oxytocin: its mechanism of action and receptor signalling in the myometrium.","Arrowsmith S, Wray S","10.1111/jne.12154",{"id":21018,"title":21019,"authors":21020,"journal":21021,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":21022},1382,"Oxytocin and Olfaction.","Oettl LL, Kelsch W","Current topics in behavioral neurosciences","10.1007/7854_2017_8",{"id":21024,"title":21025,"authors":21026,"journal":703,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":21027},1383,"Design of Oxytocin Analogs.","Wiśniewski K","10.1007/978-1-4939-9504-2_11",{"id":21029,"title":21030,"authors":21031,"journal":10601,"year":697,"citationType":167,"doi":21032},1384,"Oxytocin therapy in hypopituitarism: Challenges and opportunities.","Bhargava R, Daughters KL, Rees A","10.1111/cen.13909",{"id":21034,"title":21035,"authors":21036,"journal":10646,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":21037},1385,"The oxytocin system and early-life experience-dependent plastic changes.","Onaka T, Takayanagi Y","10.1111/jne.13049",{"id":21039,"title":21040,"authors":21041,"journal":516,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":21042},1386,"Oxytocin in Schizophrenia: Pathophysiology and Implications for Future Treatment.","Goh KK, Chen CH, Lane HY","10.3390/ijms22042146",{"id":21044,"title":21045,"authors":21046,"journal":21021,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":21047},1387,"Oxytocin and Social Cognition.","Ebert A, Brüne M","10.1007/7854_2017_21",{"id":21049,"title":21050,"authors":21051,"journal":21021,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":21052},1388,"Oxytocin and Parental Behaviors.","Yoshihara C, Numan M, Kuroda KO","10.1007/7854_2017_11",{"id":21054,"title":21055,"authors":21056,"journal":516,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":21057},1389,"Oxytocin and Food Intake Control: Neural, Behavioral, and Signaling Mechanisms.","Liu CM, Spaulding MO, Rea JJ, Noble EE, Kanoski SE","10.3390/ijms221910859",{"id":21059,"title":21060,"authors":21061,"journal":21062,"year":491,"citationType":167,"doi":21063},1390,"Oxytocin and Rodent Models of Addiction.","Leong KC, Cox S, King C, Becker H, Reichel CM","International review of neurobiology","10.1016/bs.irn.2018.07.007",{"id":21065,"title":21066,"authors":21067,"journal":516,"year":465,"citationType":167,"doi":21068},1391,"Roles of Oxytocin in Stress Responses, Allostasis and Resilience.","Takayanagi Y, Onaka T","10.3390/ijms23010150",{"id":21070,"title":21071,"authors":21072,"journal":21073,"year":437,"citationType":167,"doi":21074},1392,"Oxytocin interactions with central dopamine and serotonin systems regulate different components of motherhood.","Grieb ZA, Lonstein JS","Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences","10.1098/rstb.2021.0062",[],{"totalProtocols":8,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":5369,"researchPaperCount":8,"lastCalculated":21077},"2026-01-05T22:12:18.404084","https://peptides.professorpeptides.org/oxytocin.webp","1.007","C43H66N12O12S2","439302","CYIQNCPLG","3-5 minutes","IV/Intranasal","50-56-6","CC[C@H](C)[C@H]1C(=O)N[C@H](C(=O)N[C@H](C(=O)N[C@@H](CSSC[C@@H](C(=O)N[C@H](C(=O)N1)CC2=CC=C(C=C2)O)N)C(=O)N3CCC[C@H]3C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(C)C)C(=O)NCC(=O)N)CC(=O)N)CCC(=O)N",[21088,21093,21096,21101],{"name":21089,"dose":21090,"frequency":21091,"route":21092},"Labor Induction","0.5-2 mU/min initial, titrate to 1-2 mU/min every 30-60 min","Continuous IV infusion","Intravenous (diluted)",{"name":21094,"dose":21095,"frequency":21091,"route":21092},"Labor Augmentation","0.5-1 mU/min initial, increase gradually",{"name":21097,"dose":21098,"frequency":21099,"route":21100},"Postpartum Hemorrhage Prevention","10 units IM or 10-40 units in IV solution","Single dose after placental delivery","Intramuscular or IV infusion",{"name":21102,"dose":21103,"frequency":21104,"route":21105},"Postpartum Hemorrhage Treatment","10-40 units in 1L IV fluid","Rate adjusted to control bleeding","Intravenous infusion",[20851,21107,21108,21109],"Pitocin","Syntocinon","OXT",[21111,21112,21113,21114,21115],"Labor induction and postpartum hemorrhage (approved use)","Social behavior and cognition","Autism spectrum disorder","Psychiatric disorders (anxiety, PTSD)","Bonding and pair relationships",{"human":21117,"animal":21118,"inVitro":21119,"uncertain":21120},"Oxytocin is an FDA-approved drug (Pitocin) for labor induction/augmentation and postpartum hemorrhage, with decades of obstetric use. In psychiatric research, a large 2021 NEJM randomized trial found that intranasal oxytocin did not significantly improve social functioning in children and adolescents with autism, tempering earlier promising small studies; meta-analyses report small and inconsistent effects overall.","Rodent and primate studies show oxytocin modulates social bonding, maternal behavior, pair bonding, and stress responses via central oxytocin receptors.","Receptor-binding and cellular studies characterize oxytocin's actions at the oxytocin receptor (OXTR), a G-protein-coupled receptor, including uterine smooth-muscle contraction.","The 'love hormone' narrative - that intranasal oxytocin reliably enhances trust, empathy, or relationships in daily life - is contested: the largest autism trial was negative, and effects in healthy populations are small and context-dependent.",[21122,21126,21129],{"finding":21123,"source":21124,"year":465,"link":21125,"evidenceLevel":46},"In a randomized trial in 290 children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder, 24 weeks of intranasal oxytocin did not improve social functioning versus placebo.","Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial (New England Journal of Medicine)","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34644471/",{"finding":21127,"source":21128,"year":23,"link":23,"evidenceLevel":46},"Oxytocin (Pitocin) is FDA approved for induction and augmentation of labor and for management of postpartum hemorrhage; its obstetric efficacy and safety profile are well established.","FDA-approved drug (obstetric use)",{"finding":21130,"source":21131,"year":23,"link":23,"evidenceLevel":46},"Meta-analyses of intranasal oxytocin across psychiatric indications report small, inconsistent effects with significant heterogeneity across trials.","Multiple meta-analyses (PubMed-indexed literature)","Obstetric use is well validated, but psychiatric applications of intranasal oxytocin remain experimental: the largest autism trial was negative, effect sizes in healthy volunteers are small and context-dependent, and optimal dosing and CNS delivery are unresolved.","Oxytocin is a nine-amino-acid neuropeptide; as a drug (Pitocin) it is given IV for obstetric indications with a short plasma half-life on the order of minutes. Intranasal administration is used in research settings to target central effects, though brain delivery and dosing are debated.",[21135,21138,21141],{"question":21136,"answer":21137},"Is oxytocin FDA approved?","Yes - IV oxytocin (Pitocin) is FDA approved for inducing/augmenting labor and for postpartum hemorrhage. Intranasal oxytocin is not approved for psychiatric use.",{"question":21139,"answer":21140},"Does oxytocin nasal spray help autism?","The largest randomized trial (NEJM 2021) found no significant improvement in social functioning; overall evidence is mixed and inconclusive.",{"question":21142,"answer":21143},"Is oxytocin the 'love hormone'?","Oxytocin is involved in bonding and social behavior in animals, but human effects of intranasal administration are small and context-dependent, and popular claims overstate the evidence.",{"id":10452,"name":21145,"slug":21146,"description":21147,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":15,"views":8,"shortDescription":21148,"researchStatus":21149,"dosage":21150,"mechanism":21151,"safetyNote":21152,"athleteWarning":23,"chemicalMakeup":23,"molecularWeight":23,"molecularFormula":23,"sequence":23,"halfLife":21153,"administrationRoute":4541,"benefits":21154,"peptideBenefits":21157,"sideEffects":21159,"peptideSideEffects":21160,"citations":21161,"protocols":21171,"compatiblePeptides":21179,"research":21188,"statsCache":21189,"imageUrl":21190,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"totalMentions":8,"aliases":21191,"researchAreas":21197,"evidence":21201,"keyStudies":21205,"limitations":21206,"faqs":21207,"lastReviewed":359},"Cartalax","cartalax","Cartalax (AED peptide, T-31) is a synthetic tripeptide consisting of Alanine-Glutamate-Aspartate, developed by Professor Vladimir Khavinson as part of the bioregulatory peptide family. Originally isolated from kidney tissue and found in the alpha-1 chain of type XI collagen, Cartalax has shown potential in supporting cartilage, connective tissue, and cellular regeneration through modulation of proliferation markers and apoptosis pathways.","Cartalax (AED peptide, T-31) is a synthetic tripeptide consisting of Alanine-Glutamate-Aspartate, developed by Professor Vladimir Khavinson as part of the bioregulatory peptide family.","Research compound - Khavinson bioregulator with Russian clinical use; not FDA approved","1 capsule (100mcg)","Each capsule contains 0.1mg (100mcg) of AC-4 peptide complex. Specialized formulation designed to survive digestion and provide systemic bioregulatory effects.","Take with meals as directed by Russian manufacturers to optimize tolerance. No reported side effects in Russian clinical use when taken properly. Well-tolerated even in elderly patients. Can be combined with conventional treatments. No drug dependence reported.","20-40 minutes (short-acting bioregulator)",[21155],{"id":1063,"benefit":21156,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},"Convenient administration for joint and connective tissue support, used extensively in Russian clinical practice for degenerative conditions with established safety profile",[21158],{"id":1063,"benefit":21156,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},[],[],[21162,21165,21168],{"id":21163,"title":21164,"authors":155,"journal":23,"year":437,"citationType":24,"doi":155,"researchPaperId":23},2132,"Neuronal Differentiation Study (2022)",{"id":21166,"title":21167,"authors":155,"journal":23,"year":465,"citationType":24,"doi":155,"researchPaperId":23},2133,"Bone Marrow Stem Cell Study (2021)",{"id":21169,"title":21170,"authors":155,"journal":23,"year":451,"citationType":24,"doi":155,"researchPaperId":23},2134,"Kidney Cell Culture Research (2020)",[21172,21174,21177],{"name":13376,"dose":21150,"frequency":21173,"route":4541},"Daily with meals",{"name":21175,"dose":21176,"frequency":21173,"route":4541},"Intensive Support","2 capsules (200mcg)",{"name":892,"dose":21150,"frequency":21178,"route":4541},"Every other day with food",[21180,21182,21184,21186],{"slug":21181,"status":5922,"note":23},"khavinson-peptides",{"slug":21183,"status":5922,"note":23},"collagen",{"slug":21185,"status":6006,"note":6007},"growth-factors",{"slug":21187,"status":5922,"note":23},"anti-inflammatory-medications",[],{"totalProtocols":2222,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":8,"researchPaperCount":2222,"lastCalculated":23},"/images/peptides/cartalax.svg",[21192,21193,21194,21195,21196],"AED peptide","T-31","Ala-Glu-Asp tripeptide","Alanine-Glutamate-Aspartate","Khavinson bioregulator peptide",[21198,21199,21200],"Cartilage and connective-tissue bioregulation","Short-peptide (Khavinson) bioregulators","Cellular regeneration / aging research",{"human":23,"animal":21202,"inVitro":21203,"uncertain":21204},"The AED tripeptide belongs to the Khavinson short-peptide bioregulator family; research (largely Russian-language) reports tissue-specific modulation of proliferation and apoptosis in cartilage/connective-tissue models, but independent English-language peer-reviewed validation is very limited.","Cell models report the AED peptide influences proliferation markers and apoptosis pathways relevant to cartilage biology; published mechanistic detail is sparse.","Claims of cartilage regeneration, joint repair, and anti-aging effects are largely promotional; no rigorous clinical evidence supports them.",[],"Published evidence is extremely limited: most information comes from commercial peptide vendors and Russian-language bioregulator literature. No randomized clinical trials, no pharmacokinetic data in indexed journals, and no independent replication of claimed tissue-specific effects.",[21208,21211],{"question":21209,"answer":21210},"Is Cartalax FDA approved?","No. Cartalax (AED peptide) is not approved by any major regulatory authority and is sold only as a research compound.",{"question":21212,"answer":21213},"Does Cartalax regenerate cartilage?","There is no clinical evidence in humans. Claims rest on limited bioregulator-peptide research, mostly from the Khavinson school, and remain unproven.",{"id":10455,"name":21215,"slug":21216,"description":21217,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":15,"views":8,"shortDescription":21218,"researchStatus":21219,"dosage":21220,"mechanism":21221,"safetyNote":21222,"athleteWarning":23,"chemicalMakeup":23,"molecularWeight":21223,"molecularFormula":23,"sequence":23,"halfLife":21224,"administrationRoute":4541,"benefits":21225,"peptideBenefits":21239,"sideEffects":21247,"peptideSideEffects":21248,"citations":21249,"protocols":21259,"compatiblePeptides":21272,"research":21275,"statsCache":21276,"imageUrl":21277,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"totalMentions":8,"aliases":21278,"researchAreas":21284,"evidence":21288,"keyStudies":21293,"limitations":21302,"pharmacology":21303,"faqs":21304,"lastReviewed":359},"Cyclic Glycine-Proline","cyclic-glycine-proline","Cyclic glycine-proline (cGP) is a naturally occurring small cyclic dipeptide belonging to the 2,5-diketopiperazine family. It is endogenous to the human body, found in plasma, breast milk, and cerebrospinal fluid. cGP is a metabolite of insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) and plays a key role in regulating IGF-1 bioavailability by competing with IGF-1 for binding to IGFBP-3. Research suggests cGP has neuroprotective, nootropic, and cardioprotective properties, with clinical trials showing benefits for cognitive function, stroke recovery, and metabolic health.","Cyclic glycine-proline (cGP) is a naturally occurring small cyclic dipeptide belonging to the 2,5-diketopiperazine family.","Research compound - endogenous peptide with clinical studies; not FDA approved","20-40 μg","cGP competes with IGF-1 for binding to IGFBP-3, thereby regulating the amount of bioavailable IGF-1 in circulation. It normalizes IGF-1 function - promoting activity when insufficient and inhibiting when excessive. Also acts as positive allosteric modulator of AMPA and GABA-A receptors and increases BDNF levels.","cGP is endogenous to the human body - naturally found in plasma, breast milk, and CSF. Generally well-tolerated with excellent safety profile in clinical studies. No significant adverse events reported in available research. Start with lower dose to assess individual response. Consult healthcare provider if taking medications affecting IGF-1 or growth hormone. Limited long-term human data - most studies are short to medium term.","154.17","~15-30 minutes systemic",[21226,21227,21229,21231,21233,21235,21237],{"id":1085,"benefit":957,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},{"id":1091,"benefit":21228,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},"cognitive enhancement",{"id":1096,"benefit":21230,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},"IGF-1 optimization",{"id":1102,"benefit":21232,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},"cardiovascular support",{"id":1108,"benefit":21234,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},"metabolic health",{"id":1113,"benefit":21236,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},"convenient oral administration",{"id":1118,"benefit":21238,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},"crosses blood-brain barrier",[21240,21241,21242,21243,21244,21245,21246],{"id":1085,"benefit":957,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},{"id":1091,"benefit":21228,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},{"id":1096,"benefit":21230,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},{"id":1102,"benefit":21232,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},{"id":1108,"benefit":21234,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},{"id":1113,"benefit":21236,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},{"id":1118,"benefit":21238,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},[],[],[21250,21253,21256],{"id":21251,"title":21252,"authors":155,"journal":15451,"year":478,"citationType":24,"doi":155,"researchPaperId":23},2138,"Alzheimer's Mouse Model Study (2023)",{"id":21254,"title":21255,"authors":155,"journal":15451,"year":478,"citationType":24,"doi":155,"researchPaperId":23},2139,"Stroke Recovery & Cognitive Function Review (2023)",{"id":21257,"title":21258,"authors":155,"journal":15451,"year":491,"citationType":24,"doi":155,"researchPaperId":23},2140,"Parkinson's Disease Clinical Study (2018)",[21260,21263,21266,21269],{"name":21261,"dose":21220,"frequency":3989,"route":21262},"General cognitive support","Oral (capsule)",{"name":21264,"dose":21265,"frequency":3989,"route":21262},"Neuroprotection/anti-aging","40-50 μg",{"name":21267,"dose":21268,"frequency":3989,"route":21262},"Metabolic/cardiovascular support","40-100 μg",{"name":21270,"dose":21271,"frequency":5807,"route":21262},"Via blackcurrant extract","300 mg BCA",[21273],{"slug":21274,"status":6006,"note":6007},"gh-secretagogues",[],{"totalProtocols":2486,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":8,"researchPaperCount":2222,"lastCalculated":23},"/images/peptides/cyclic-glycine-proline.svg",[21279,21280,21281,21282,21283],"cGP","cyclo(Gly-Pro)","cyclic glycyl-proline","Gly-Pro diketopiperazine","2,5-diketopiperazine of Gly-Pro",[21285,21286,21287,957],"IGF-1 signaling regulation","Stroke recovery biomarker","Age-related cognitive decline",{"human":21289,"animal":21290,"inVitro":21291,"uncertain":21292},"An observational clinical study (Ann Clin Transl Neurol, 2019) found the plasma cyclic glycine-proline/IGF-1 ratio predicts clinical outcome and recovery in stroke patients. A clinical pharmacology review describes cGP as normalising IGF-1 function with potential clinical significance in the ageing brain, though no interventional trials of cGP supplementation were found.","Preclinical studies, largely from one research group, report that cGP restores IGF-1 bioavailability and improves outcomes in rodent models of ischemic brain injury and aging-related cognitive decline.","Cell and binding assays show cGP binds insulin-like growth factor-binding protein 3 (IGFBP-3), displacing IGF-1 and restoring IGF-1 bioavailability - the mechanism proposed for its effects.","Claims that cGP supplementation slows aging or enhances cognition in humans remain unproven; no human efficacy trials exist.",[21294,21298],{"finding":21295,"source":21296,"year":697,"link":21297,"evidenceLevel":46},"Higher plasma cGP/IGF-1 ratio at admission predicted better clinical outcome and recovery in stroke patients.","observational clinical study (Annals of Clinical and Translational Neurology)","https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31019991/",{"finding":21299,"source":21300,"year":478,"link":21301,"evidenceLevel":46},"Review of clinical pharmacology and preclinical data concludes cGP normalises IGF-1 function with clinical significance in the ageing brain and age-related neurological conditions.","clinical pharmacology review","https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9919809/","The evidence base is small: a limited number of observational human studies and mostly single-group preclinical work, much of it from one research group. No large randomized clinical trials of cGP exist, and commercial cGP supplements are not regulated as medicines.","An endogenous cyclic dipeptide formed from IGF-1 metabolism. Studied via oral and parenteral administration in preclinical models; human pharmacokinetics of exogenous cGP are not well characterized.",[21305,21308,21311],{"question":21306,"answer":21307},"Is cGP a synthetic peptide?","It is an endogenous cyclic dipeptide (glycine-proline diketopiperazine) generated during IGF-1 breakdown, and it is also produced synthetically for research and supplements.",{"question":21309,"answer":21310},"What does cGP do?","It binds to IGFBP-3 and displaces IGF-1, restoring IGF-1 bioavailability. Proposed downstream effects are neuroprotective, with observational data linking cGP/IGF-1 ratios to stroke recovery.",{"question":21312,"answer":21313},"Does cGP have proven benefits in humans?","No. Current human data are observational (e.g., stroke recovery prediction) plus a clinical pharmacology review; interventional evidence of benefit is lacking.",{"id":4666,"name":21315,"slug":21316,"description":21317,"fdaApproved":15,"wadaBanned":15,"views":8,"shortDescription":21318,"researchStatus":21319,"dosage":21320,"mechanism":21321,"safetyNote":21322,"athleteWarning":23,"chemicalMakeup":23,"molecularWeight":21323,"molecularFormula":23,"sequence":23,"halfLife":21324,"administrationRoute":5863,"benefits":21325,"peptideBenefits":21332,"sideEffects":21336,"peptideSideEffects":21337,"citations":21338,"protocols":21349,"compatiblePeptides":21360,"research":21367,"statsCache":21368,"imageUrl":21369,"dataCompleteness":305,"hasResearchData":28,"totalMentions":8,"aliases":21370,"researchAreas":21374,"evidence":21377,"keyStudies":21381,"limitations":21382,"faqs":21383,"lastReviewed":359},"Prostamax","prostamax","Prostamax (Lys-Glu-Asp-Pro/KEDP) is a synthetic tetrapeptide bioregulator from the Khavinson peptide family that demonstrates prostate-specific tissue effects. Preclinical research shows anti-inflammatory and tissue-protective properties in chronic prostatitis models, with emerging interest in epigenetic chromatin regulation and anti-aging applications. Human clinical trial data remains limited.","Prostamax (Lys-Glu-Asp-Pro/KEDP) is a synthetic tetrapeptide bioregulator from the Khavinson peptide family that demonstrates prostate-specific tissue effects.","Research compound - human clinical trial data not yet published","0.5-1mg daily","Subcutaneous injection provides systemic circulation for tissue-specific bioregulation of prostate gland cells","Human clinical trial data not yet published - dosing extrapolated from preclinical models. Possible mild injection site reactions (redness, swelling). Rare reports of mild digestive discomfort or headache. Contraindicated when active prostate malignancy exists - theoretical concern for tumor growth stimulation. Not recommended during pregnancy or lactation. Quality sourcing critical - verify purity and avoid contaminated products.","487.50","20-40 minutes plasma",[21326,21328,21330],{"id":14194,"benefit":21327,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},"Direct systemic delivery",{"id":14300,"benefit":21329,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},"optimal bioavailability for prostate tissue targeting",{"id":14305,"benefit":21331,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},"established preclinical protocols",[21333,21334,21335],{"id":14194,"benefit":21327,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},{"id":14300,"benefit":21329,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},{"id":14305,"benefit":21331,"benefitCategory":23,"source":24,"sourceUrl":23,"evidenceLevel":46,"verified":15},[],[],[21339,21343,21346],{"id":21340,"title":21341,"authors":155,"journal":21342,"year":1152,"citationType":24,"doi":155,"researchPaperId":23},2165,"Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia Model (2014)","SCIRP (Scientific Research Publishing)",{"id":21344,"title":21345,"authors":155,"journal":21342,"year":260,"citationType":24,"doi":155,"researchPaperId":23},2166,"Chronic Aseptic Prostatitis - Rat Model (2013)",{"id":21347,"title":21348,"authors":155,"journal":5900,"year":1196,"citationType":24,"doi":155,"researchPaperId":23},2167,"Deheterochromatinization in Aging (2012)",[21350,21352,21355],{"name":21351,"dose":21320,"frequency":1801,"route":5382},"Prostate Health Support",{"name":1581,"dose":21353,"frequency":21354,"route":5382},"0.75mg daily","Once daily for 10-20 days",{"name":21356,"dose":21357,"frequency":21358,"route":21359},"Preclinical Reference (Rat Model)","20 μg/kg","Daily for 15 days","Intramuscular",[21361,21363,21365],{"slug":21362,"status":6006,"note":6208},"5-alpha-reductase-inhibitors",{"slug":21364,"status":6006,"note":6007},"testosterone-trt",{"slug":21366,"status":5922,"note":23},"saw-palmetto",[],{"totalProtocols":2222,"totalStacks":8,"totalVotes":8,"avgRating":23,"totalExperiences":8,"totalBookmarks":8,"redditMentions":8,"youtubeMentions":8,"researchPaperCount":2222,"lastCalculated":23},"/images/peptides/prostamax.svg",[21315,21371,21372,21373],"KEDP peptide","Lys-Glu-Asp-Pro","Khavinson bioregulator tetrapeptide",[21375,21199,21376],"Prostate-tissue bioregulation","Chronic prostatitis (preclinical)",{"human":23,"animal":21378,"inVitro":21379,"uncertain":21380},"Preclinical work (largely Russian-language, Khavinson school) reports prostate-tissue-specific effects, including anti-inflammatory and tissue-protective actions in models of chronic prostatitis.","Cell studies report the KEDP tetrapeptide modulates proliferation and gene expression in prostate cell lines, but published detail is limited.","Prostate-health, anti-aging, and epigenetic-regulation claims are not supported by robust clinical evidence. The name 'Prostamax' also belongs to unrelated herbal prostate supplements, causing record-level confusion.",[],"No indexed clinical trials, no pharmacokinetic data, and little independent replication. Evidence rests on limited Russian-language bioregulator research and vendor material; readers should treat prostate-benefit claims as unproven and note the name collision with commercial herbal supplements.",[21384,21387],{"question":21385,"answer":21386},"Is Prostamax clinically proven for prostate health?","No. No published human trials exist for the KEDP peptide; prostate-benefit claims are preclinical or unproven.",{"question":21388,"answer":21389},"Is the peptide Prostamax the same as the supplement sold in stores?","No. The peptide Prostamax (KEDP) is distinct from herbal 'Prostamax' supplements; the shared name causes confusion.","https://cbzugwmbrmdvvkvtjpnn.supabase.co/storage/v1/object/public/peptide_category_icons/sexual_wellness.png",1787198207851]